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OVERVIEW Two of the physical aspects of village life are the focus of this chapter: infrastructure and construction. In Section 1, 'Infrastructure', is a discussion of roads and trails, where they existed, what role they played, and why they were fairly inconsequential in the overall transportation system of the region. Springs and wells forms the second part of this section, where they were found, how they were protected, and what were the alternatives when these proved unreliable. Subsequent sections relate to 'Construction'. In Section 2 is a presentation of all the available tools, from saws, lathes and planes, through hammers, mallets and nails, to pulleys and wedges. Section 3 in on wood, looking at the hardwood trees that provided posts for the houses and beams for the frames. A discussion of shelters follows in Section 4, examining those which were temporary, used on the hunt or in the field, for defense and for religious purposes, and those which were more permanent, such as markets and hostels. The house is the topic of Section 5, its main divisions, the specifics of its entry steps and ladders, its doors and windows and the accompanying enclosures found also on the property. In Section 6 begins the details of house construction, the planning and measurement, the preparation of the wood, the building of the frame, the roof, the walls and the floor, and how all this was clad with local grasses, palm fronds and bamboo, and held together with ties, lashes and pegs. Concluding the section is a discussion of quality and finish, followed by the possibilities of ruin and disrepair where the effects of climate, abetted by indifference, bring about collapse of the building.
The majority of lowland Philippine towns was located along the seashore, on the banks of rivers, or between creeks and streams.[1] While a location on the edge of the sea exposed them to raids, and along the river systems to periodic flooding,[2] it also offered them access to their dominant mode of transport, the boat.
With an orientation to water sources, it is not surprising that transportation between major towns was by river or sea, not land. Roads, where they existed, would have been found within these towns. Well-travelled roads may have also led from town centres to the water's edge, into agricultural fields or to nearby settlements with no immediate access to water. Further afield, roads would have turned more basic, to paths and trails leading to more isolated settlements which became more difficult and more time-consuming to reach (also see Chapter 16, 'Towns, Trade and Travel,' Section 4(iv)). A need for roads would have also been circumscribed by the lack of vehicles to use them. Early references to wheeled vehicles is hard to find, with such references only becoming more common in dictionaries from the mid seventeenth century onward. With the coming of the Spanish, such vehicles began to appear in the Philippines and their service as a means of transportation became increasingly more common. Better roads and land access to more remote communities would no doubt have followed. References to wheeled vehicles in the dictionaries of the central Philippine languages have been included in the endnotes for those who wish to pursue this further. There is a single reference to carreta 'cart' in Bikol (Bárag-bárag na iníng mamaˈmán Anda por ahi rodando esta carreta de los buyos 'The cart with betel nut is going from place to place') but this may not necessarily refer to a wheeled vehicle. Mamaˈmán is simply a container for betel nut, and as the Tagalog entry, paragos, shows, not all carreta had wheels.[3] Within towns of the Bikol region, roads were referred to as lansángan, a term shared with all of the central Philippine languages with the exception of Waray.[4] Where reference to roads was made in song or verse, the term used was palkátan, a term whose root, lakat, can be found in Cebuano where the meaning is 'to walk'. This use of terms in the songs and narratives of Bikol which can be found as everyday vocabulary items in the Visayan languages to the south, but not in Tagalog to the north, does appear to indicate stronger cultural ties between the Bikol region and the Visayas. Whether these terms were borrowed into Bikol or are simply the remnants of a shared history of oral narratives and verse is not something that will be easy to determine.[5]
palkátan road, used only in song and verse [MDL]
The modern term for road or highway, tinampó, is not found in the Lisboa dictionary proper. It appears only in the index of the 1754 edition where it is defined as a 'raised roadway', equivalent to dinagáˈ, a derivation of the root dagáˈ 'soil' or 'earth', which does appear in the dictionary. This must have been a roadway built in low-lying areas prone to flooding enabling access to areas otherwise cut off during the annual rains.
tinampó street, road, roadway, highway dinagáˈ a raised roadway, built on filled-in ground [MDL]
baralágat describing a road crossed by many trails or a line crossed by many other lines; MA- or MAG- to cross a road, line (trails, other lines); to intersect (roads, trails); (PAG-)-ON to be crossed or intersected in such a way [MDL] bágat MAG-, -ON to block s/o; to stand in the way of s/o; to stop s/t (by being an obstruction); MAG-, -AN to obstruct, bar, or block off a particular area [MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to go out of the house to meet s/o; to call to s/o passing by on a road or river; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to call s/t out or take s/t to s/o passing by; MAGKA- to meet, come together (two routes, people); (fig-) Binágat akó niyáng langhadán She greeted me with an insult when I was passing by her house]
luluwángan plaza; entry road to a town; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to enter a town, village by the main entry road; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to take s/t into a town by this route [MDL]
A track formed strictly by birds or animals (anóg) would certainly be noticed, but it would draw comment only when a trail for passage by humans seemed very narrow and equally impassable. And then there were the paths through areas of reeds or tall grass (ranggás). These would undoubtedly be harder to keep open, requiring periodic clearing and cutting (gatás).
anóg path or trail of a bird or animal; (fig-) Paˈanó kitá an umági kainíng dálan na garó na lámang anóg nin tiklíng? How are we going to pass on a trail that is like that of a tiklíng (Said when a trail is very narrow) [MDL] ranggás a road or trail through a thicket or an area of dense growth; MAG-, -AN to walk along such a trail or travel such a road [MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to walk through an area of tall grass or dense growth; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to go to get s/t which requires passing through such an area; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to carry s/t through such an area] gatás MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to clear and maintain a road or trail through an area of tall grass or reeds by cutting when required; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to clean and maintain a trail through such an area [MDL]
bádas MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cut shrubs and trees in clearing land for a house or trail; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to clear land for a trail, a house [MDL] bátaw MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to clear a new trail; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to clear a new trail through a particular area [MDL]
luhób MA- or MAG- to be worn away; to develop ruts or grooves (as a well-traveled trail); to develop a depression; MAKA-, MA- to get worn down [MDL] tunák muddy (a road, trail); MA- to become muddy (a road, trail due to constant or heavy use) [MDL]
salángiˈ a winding road; a roundabout way; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to travel a winding road; to take the long way around; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to go to get s/t via a roundabout route; (fig-) Kasalánging buˈót iyán ni kuyán That person is a non-conformist (going where other people are going, but taking the long way around) [MDL]
taruktók referring to the occurrence of many things stuck in the ground (such as spikes, posts or stakes along a road); also refers to the remaining parts of a broken grill or bars; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to drive in a large number of such spikes, posts; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to drive such stakes or posts into the ground; (fig-) used as a curse or insult: Pinagtaruktokán ka May you be impaled on many spikes [MDL] While there are references to bridges in Bikol, these clearly refer to constructions which are impermanent: logs or tree trunks placed across a river or stream (bátang), or planks of wood used to the same purpose (tuytóy). These are constructions which would be washed eventually away in the heavy rains of the season, to be rebuilt as needed in a subsequent year.
tuytóy MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to cross a river or stream by means of a bridge; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cross for a particular reason or to get s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t such a plank or log as a bridge; MAGPA-, PA--ON to encourage s/o to cross; to talk s/o across; also: to encourage s/o to say or confess s/t they have done; MAPA-, IPA- to say s/t in encouragement so s/o will cross; -AN: a bridge [MDL]
sugsóg MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to wade through a river; to ford a river by wading through the water; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to ford or wade through a river to get s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to carry s/t through a ford or when wading across a river [MDL] abíˈog MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to vault over a ford in a river by using a long staff or pole; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to vault over a river to get s/t or for a particular reason; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a staff or long pole for vaulting a ford [MDL]
For survival, any community would need access to fresh water (taˈbáng, labsáy). The water of rivers provided a means for transport and a place for bathing, but rarely water pure enough for drinking. The waters of creeks and streams (tangód) may have been suitable for washing, but lacked the cleanliness for cooking and consumption.
labsáy MA- tasteless ... MAG- to become tasteless [+MDL: labsáy na túbig fresh water; MA- or MAG- to become less salty (s/t which is preserved); malabsáy na árak weak liquor; malabsáy na tubáˈ weak tubáˈ] tangód the murky water of rivulets and streams used for washing, but not clean enough for drinking or for use in cooking [MDL]
busdák fresh water found near the coast in hill crevices with no inlet nor outlet [MDL] basiáw brackish water found near the coast which may be drunk at times when no other water is available [MDL]
burábod spring, a natural flow of water; buró-burábod a small spring [+MDL] bárong water which flows from a spring or is found in a well; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to flow from a spring or be found in a well (water); to draw water from a spring or well for s/o [MDL] tubód MA- or MAG- to gush, flow (as a spring from the ground); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to gush, flow from a well, a spring (water); to draw water from a spring or well for s/o; MAPA- to wait for the water to flow; Daˈíng tubód iníng bubón This well is dry [MDL]
húgad MA-, -AN: hugáran or MAG-, PAG--AN: paghugáran to drain a well so that it may be deepened; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to drain or clean mud, sand from a well [MDL]
gusád MA-, -AN: gusarán or MAG-, PAG--AN: paggusarán to bore a hole in the middle of a piece of timber, such as that later used for the cover of a well, planing it to a smooth finish; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to remove a piece of wood in the process of boring [MDL]
sakdó MAG-, -ON to fetch water; MAG-, -AN to fetch water from a river, stream or well [+MDL: sakdóˈ MA-, -ON or MAG-, PA--ON to fetch water; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fetch water from a well, a river] busóg MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to pour water or another liquid from one container into another; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fill one container with water poured from another; used on Holy Thursday as part of the Maundy Thursday Mass [MDL]
duláy an earthenware or pottery jar or pitcher without handles, commonly used to carry water [+MDL duláy-duláy small pottery jar or pitcher] haˈsóg MA- or MAG- to carry water in small containers for the purpose of filling large water urns; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fill large urns from smaller containers; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use small containers for this purpose [MDL]
wanyíng a large earthen jar, said in ancient times to be so large that one could swim in it [MDL]
There was a varied set of tools available to the craftsman for all wood-working tasks, from carpentry to the construction of houses. In all of the central Philippine languages such a craftsman was the pandáy, although the scope of such a term differed. At its most general level, it referred to anyone with a particular expertise, for the most part in working with the hands. The most restricted meaning is found in Bergaño's definition for Kampampangan where the pandáy is described as a 'blacksmith'.[10]
kuwó DAˈÍ I-: daˈíng ikinukuwó an expression used when one does not have the proper tools or equipment for the task at hand: Úgod-úgod haˈboná sinasasaró-saróng uták na daˈí kamíng ibáng ikinukuwó It's good you're going to steal our one and only knife, leaving us nothing to work with (Said sarcastically) [MDL] paˈwáhan toolbox; a small square a box in which carpenters, smiths and other craftsmen store their tools; also papaˈwáhan; -ON: pinaˈwáhan squared; s/t with squared sides; var- paˈháwan [MDL] áwaˈ MA-: maáwang táwo cautious, prudent, circumspect; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to do s/t gradually so that it will not be marred; to look after what one is carrying in the hand so that it will not be lost or broken; to be cautious, prudent or circumspect in carrying out a particular task; Abóng áwaˈ ni kuyán That person is very careful [MDL]
gípoˈ broken (the tip of anything pointed); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to break off the tip; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to break the tip off from s/t; MA- to have a broken tip [MDL] gúro old and worn (tools, arms or implements of steel); MA- to become old and worn; PAGKA-: an pagkagúro the wearing out of tools, arms [MDL]
taguktók the sound of light pounding; MAG- to make such a sound [MDL: the sound of knocking on wood; MA- or MAG- to make such a sound] sagapók sound of a blow to the head; the sound of striking or hitting a log or wooden board; MA- or MAG- to make such a sound [MDL] ragaydáy the sound of hacking s/t with a bolo or knife; MA- or MAG- to make this sound [MDL]
The tools which were available to the craftsman at the turn of the sixteenth century would look very familiar to the craftsman of today, even though the materials used might differ. Saws (lagádiˈ) would serve the same purpose of cutting wood to a required size. Lagádi, or one of its cognates, is found in all of the central Philippine languages, the exact form occurring in Waray and Cebuano [11] and the form lagari in Tagalog, Kapampangan and Hiligaynon.[12] The term is a borrowing of the Malay gergaji, which in turn is a borrowing which Winstedt, and others, attribute to Sanskrit.[13] The Sanskrit origin which is always cited is krakača, a form which appears rather distant from the resultant term in Malay and, even more so, from those in the Philippines. Changes which occur to some of the Sanskrit loans when borrowed into Indonesian (or Malay) are explained by Uri Tadmor in his chapter in the publication Loan Words in the World's Languages.[14] Some of the Sanskrit loans undergo intervocalic voicing; thus [krakača], the original form, becomes [kragaǰa]. It is also possible that the initial voiceless consonant would have also become voiced through assimilation to the following voiced consonant, producing [gragaǰa]. One further change which is not mentioned in the chapter is metathesis of the second consonant and following vowel, motivated by the inability of Malay to sustain consonant clusters within the same syllable. This change would then result in a word of the form [gargaǰa], bringing us far closer to the modern Malay form.
Modern lathes can be used to shape a wide variety of materials, including wood, metal and glass, and it is possible that in the Philippines at the turn of the sixteenth century it was also used for a variety of purposes. It may have been used in the production of jewellery to form beads and cylinders, something alluded to in the entry for Tagalog. It may also have been used in the finishing of metal objects, although there are no specific references to this. A reference in Kapampangan to particular types of plates indicates that the general term for lathe may have included something resembling the potters wheel. When working with a lathe, the material, let us say wood, as this is probably the most likely material used in the Philippines, is fixed to a chuck which is turned while the surface is transformed. At its most basic, a chisel or other bladed instrument (rupóng-rupóng) is held against a rectangular piece of wood to turn it into a cylinder by removing the sharp edges. The wood can then be decorated by applying pressure with the blade to create the desired pattern, or it could be smoothed by a simple process of sanding.
Ancient lathes would have been turned by a cord attached to the shaft of the lathe. The earliest form would have had a cord or strap wrapped around the shaft. Pulling on one end would have moved the lathe in one direction, and pulling on the other end would have moved it back. This type of lathe would have required two people to work it. A subsequent development was the bow lathe where the cord around the shaft could be moved first forward then backward. This could possibly be worked by one person if the lathe blade could be held steady with the free hand. The reference to 'cord' in the Hiligaynon entry indicates that use of a cord is probably how the lathe was turned in the Philippines, but it is unclear which of the corded systems was employed.[18]
Planes are used to modify the surfaces of wood or timber. This generally involves smoothing the surface by removing imperfections, or reducing the thickness by removing strips of wood.[19] For Bikol, the term gatám is listed in the dictionary proper in both the 1754 and 1865 editions. In both editions, however, the Spanish-Bikol index lists the form katám which is the term used in modern Bikol. Additionally, in four of the remaining five central Philippine languages under consideration here, the term is also katám. It appears very likely that in the 145 years of copying the Bikol dictionary before its initial publication in 1754 an error was introduced and never corrected and the intended form was indeed katám.[20]
katám plane (a carpenter's tool with an adjustable blade for smoothing and leveling wood); MAG-, -AN to plane s/t; MAG-, -ON to plane down a particular spot
hudhód MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to clear away plants and other vegetation with the forward movement of the iron shovel called landók; also applied to the movement of other instruments or tools where the blade is used for scraping (as when removing resin stuck to wood, floors); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to scrape s/t off from a surface [MDL]
Once articles of wood were removed from a lathe, or planed, or otherwise cut to size, they would be sanded to provide a final and smooth finish. What was used to accomplish this were two naturally occurring items, the skin of the ray fish and the leaf of the Ficus. The skin (kilkíg) of the ray fish (pági) is comprised of small, hard scales called 'placoid scales' which grow tightly together with backward-facing tips. These scales are modified tooth structures supporting a covering of hard enamel. It is for this reason that the skin can serve as a medium for sanding.[22]
pági stingray; ray fish, skate (typ- fish) [+MDL] There are two types of Ficus which Lisboa identifies in the entry for hagúpit. One of these is a species which produces an edible fig, although it is unclear which species is referred to. The second is a species which has the rough leaves which can be used for sanding. This small tree is probably the Ficus ulmifolia which attains a height of between three to five metres.[25] Hagúpit is a term also found in Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon and it also refers to a species of Ficus which has rough leaves used for sanding.[26] The Ficus reference in these languages, however, is to a climbing vine and not to a small tree. The appendix to the 1914 edition of the Sánchez de la Rosa Waray dictionary identifies this as the Ficus aspera volubilis,[27] a reference also found in the nineteenth century Flora de Filipinas.[28]
When more unwanted material needed to be removed than could be accomplished by sanding, this was done with a file. The bamboo, dasóˈ, which in modern Bikol is used as a torch or woven for walls, (see Section 6 (v)) was employed as a file, taking advantage of its rough outer surface.
Drills and augers are similar types of equipment. The auger is more corkscrew-like and formed from open rings of steel which serve to draw the material being drilled up out of the drill hole. Modern augers also have a screw tip which pulls the bit more easily into the wood, requiring less pressure. A drill is formed from more tightly coiled metal, lacks a screw tip and is generally less efficient in removing the wood which is displaced by the drilling. It is, however, unlikely that this type of distinction was applied to the equipment found in the Philippines at the turn of the sixteenth century. What was described by the early lexicographers were instruments capable of making holes in wood, and these were defined in Spanish by a variety of related terms. As will be obvious in the list of instruments below, there can be a substantial mismatch between terms and meanings when compared across the central Philippine languages. The terms for auger or drill bit in Bikol were karikád and paˈót. Other of the central Philippine languages have unique terms which represent these instruments. Waray, however, has kirikod with the same definition as Bikol, and Tagalog has paˈit which is defined a 'chisel'.[30]
paˈót auger, drill (typ- local) MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to drill into s/t; to drill s/t [MDL]
tudók punch, puncher; a pointer; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to point s/t out with the tip of a pointer (such as a line to be read); to punch s/t out; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to punch s/t out from; to point s/t out at a particular place [MDL] Both Cebuano and Hiligaynon have a term of the same form as Bikol, but with differing meanings. Encarnacion describes the lukob as a drill in the form of a chisel, and Mentrida, as a Visayan drill, referring to something similar, though not exact, to an instrument found in Spain.[32]
An adze is a cutting instrument not unlike a common axe. The main difference is the orientation of the blade. For an adze, the cutting blade is positioned perpendicular to the handle, and for an axe, this blade lies parallel to the handle.[34] The adze (daldág) in modern Bikol is associated primarily with shipbuilding, although Lisboa does not mention this specific restriction in its use. It was probably used far more generally in the past for smoothing and carving in a variety of woodworking tasks. Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon share the same term as Bikol. Tagalog and Kapampangan have the unrelated term, daras.[35]
Cognates of parakól can be found in four of the central Philippine languages discussed here; the identical form to Bikol in Waray, and palakol in Cebuano, Tagalog and Kapampangan.[36]
papatíkan haft or handle of an ax [MDL] pásang MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to split the top of an ax handle so that it may be wedged tightly into the ax head; MA- to split accidentally (an ax handle); MAKA- to cause a unintentional split [MDL] sumpáng wedge; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to put a wedge in place; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to wedge s/t (as in order to keep it steady) [MDL] tinggód referring to an ax or hatchet which does not have a perfectly formed hole where it is attached to its haft or handle [MDL]
There are any number of references to knives in the Lisboa dictionary, most of these associated with specialised uses such as weaving, harvesting or fighting. The fabrication of knives, their repair and use is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9, 'Metals and Metalworking,' Sections 8-11. Three of the most common references to knives are sundáng, described as a general term as well as any instrument for cutting, uták, described as the main working implement, and gúlok, defined simply as a knife.
uták bolo (typ- the main working implement, also used as a weapon); MAGTAGÁ- to carry such a bolo in the hand [MDL] gúlok knife (typ-) [MDL] The shaft or handle of the knife, as well as other implements, was the púlo. Some of the knives were fastened to this shaft by means of a metal ring (tikalá), but others must have been tied or lashed to it as the entry for rádas clearly implies.
tikalá a metal ring used to fasten a handle to a knife blade; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fasten a handle to a knife by means of a tikalá; MA-, I- or MAG-,IPAG- to use such a ring for such fastening [MDL] rádas MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cut open the tie, binding or lashing which holds together the bolo called útak; MA- to unravel, become undone (a knot, binding or lashing); MA--AN to become undone from an útak (binding) [MDL]
The general term for scissors, guntíng, is shared across all of the central Philippine languages. Additionally, in Bikol, it also refers to the X shape of a bamboo or wooden frame serving as a support when climbing. In Cebuano, this secondary meaning is covered by the term salagunting.[41]
There is an interesting discussion of the origin of the English word 'cot' in Hobson - Jobson: The Definitive Glossary of British India.[44] This discussion also touches on the term catre which was first recorded in sixteenth century Spanish and early seventeenth century Portuguese meaning 'a bed' or 'bedstead with X-shaped trestles', specifically catre de tijera. Catre, meaning 'bed', is a term which is recognisable in modern Philippine languages and is clearly a later borrowing from Spanish. The existence of catre, however, in a language such as Portuguese, and the presence of the Portuguese in Goa from 1510 and Malacca from 1511, indicates that the term was most likely in use or introduced in those areas, the latter which may have served as a conduit for its introduction to the Philippines before the arrival of the Spanish.
kátre bed; karó-kátre small bed [SP- catre]
Both hammers and mallets are tools used for pounding, differing in the materials used for the head; the head of a mallet being made from wood and that of a hammer, metal. Lisboa defines dungsól as a martillo 'hammer', and I have taken this to mean the tool with a metal head. There are no corresponding entries for this term in the other central Philippines languages.
sangkál MAG-, I- to smash s/t by throwing it against s/t else; to dash s/t; MAG-, -AN to throw s/t against s/t else in order to smash it; to dash s/t against s/t else [MDL: a large wooden hammer or mallet used for driving in stakes or posts; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to pound or drive in stakes or posts; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to pound or drive things into s/t]
lansáng iron (the metal) [MDL: nail]
The iron tongs used by a blacksmith in Bikol is sipít, an instrument whose meaning has widened somewhat in the modern language. To the north of Bikol the same term is found in Tagalog and Kapampangan.[49] To the south there are a variety of terms which are cognate with each other, but not with the terms to the north: kampit in Waray, kumpit in Cebuano and kimpit in Hiligaynon.[50] What is clear, however, is that in all of these terms, and others which are not mentioned here, the recurrent final syllable -pit is present in those entries which have the related meanings of clasping or grasping, as well as pinning and fastening.
kámang PA- metal bands or clamps used to reinforce cracked or broken items to keep them from deteriorating further; MAPA-, IPA- or MAGPA-, IPAGPA- to use such bands or clamps; MAPA-, PA--AN or MAGPA-, PAGPA- -AN to reinforce s/t with such bands or clamps [MDL]
The simplest of pulleys comprises a single, grooved wheel attached to an axle which is then fixed to a firm surface. A cord or rope is placed over the groove in the wheel with one end left free and the other attached to the object that needs to be lifted. Pulling down on the free end of the cord then causes the object on the fixed end to be raised. There are other variations of this system, in particular one in which a series of pulleys and ropes is arranged in sequence, generally referred to as a block and tackle. This enables the lifting of heavier loads. It is most probable that it is the simple pulley which is referenced in these early dictionaries. Identical terms to the Bikol gúlong are found in Cebuano and Hiligaynon. Tagalog and Kapampangan have the unrelated term calo.[52]
badyók wedge (typ- of iron or steel, used for splitting); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to split s/t with a wedge; var- badyík [MDL]
Wood (káhoy) was the material of general construction. It was the timber of strong, incorruptible trees which were put in place as posts and formed the frames of permanent residences. Other materials served to cover the roofs, walls and floors of the houses, but it was wood that held them up.
hásay-hásay describing an area of the forest with tall, straight trees possessing a good quality wood for felling; MANG- to be an area of such trees: Dumán kitá dápit pagkaláp nanhásay-hásay na iyán kakalapón Let's go to fell trees in that direction where there are trees with good quality wood [MDL]
suknít MA- wood which is difficult to split due to having a twisted grain: Abóng suknít kainí What a difficult piece of wood this is to split (due to its twisted grain); (fig-) Si masuknít nin buˈót na táwo si kuyán What a bad stomach (digestive system) that person has [MDL] súpat grain in wood; marbling in meat [MDL]
tagás the hard core of woody plants, trees; MA- hard (not soft), firm ... [+MDL: tágas referring to strong, hard wood used for house posts; MA- hard, strong (wood, bamboo); MA- or MAG- to harden; to become stronger; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cut hardwood trees in the forest; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to go to the forest in search of such trees; var- túgas]
Baráyong is a hardwood tree identified in modern Bikol, but not included as an entry in Lisboa. It is described as a tree which is straight, with a height of 25-30 metres and a diameter of 120 centimetres, producing a red-tinted wood and considered one of the finest for cabinet construction. Modern reference indicates it is suitable for construction as long as the posts do not come into contact with the soil.[55]
Another hardwood known in modern Bikol but not identified by Lisboa is banitís, a tree attaining a height of 35 metres and a diameter of 100 centimetres with a wood ranging in colour from light red for the new growth and deep red for the older. There are no references to this in the Visayan languages, but in Tagalog and Kapampangan it is betis, a term possibly cognate with the Bikol form.[57]
This is a tree growing natively in a widespread geographical area from Myanmar, across the rest of Southeast Asia, into northern Australia. Its name in Philippine languages varies, sometimes considerably, even within the Bikol region. Most confusing is the reference to hamúgis given for the province of Albay, a term which also refers to a tree with quite different characteristics (see Section 3(ii)).[60]
It is unclear whether it was Lisboa's intention to equate anagóp and ípil with one tree. The Spanish-Bikol index lists ípil with maglusóng, a tree which I have been unable to identify (see above), not anagóp. It is ípil, however, which is the term found across the central Philippine languages with the exception of Kapampangan.[62]
ípil tree (typ- tall, producing high quality timber used for posts and beams; Intsia bijuga) [+MDL]
There are about nine species of molave (Vitex), and the entries in the Visayan languages generally show some distinction in their referents. Sánchez de la Rosa for Waray refers to hamurawon nga lanhan as the most desirable type, and hamurawon nga manabahon as the least. Encarnacion only has the entry hamulawan referring to a poor variety of molave, while Mentrida has the entry hamulawan with no detailed description.[68]
Tamahúyon is a tree which varies in height from five to 30 metres with a trunk diameter up to 50 centimetres. It is the heartwood, the inner part of the tree, ranging in colour from pinkish to reddish brown, which is durable and sought for use in building. In Commercial Woods of the Philippines it is mentioned that the term used throughout the Philippines, with one exception, is either tamayuan, kamayuan or similar forms. I have, however, not been able to find references to this tree in other dictionaries of the central Philippine languages.[69]
The woods discussed in this section are those which have been described as being of good quality, without reference to their use for house posts or for construction in general, although most of them can indeed be used for such purposes. One of the recurring prefixes on various types of trees and wood is mala- which carries the meaning of 'like' and indicates similarity. This opens the possibility of discovering further information about the wood by checking both the fully affixed form and the root, although in a number of cases, neither led to a reliable identification. One of these unidentified trees is malakásay which Lisboa has described simply as having a good quality wood.
malakásay tree (typ- possessing a good quality wood) [MDL]
Manablíng refers, most probably, to a tree of the genus Artocarpus which has about 20 species found in the Philippines. The species fall generally into two classes, those with a softer wood commonly referred to as antipolo and a harder wood referred to as anubing. It is reference to the harder wood species which is relevant here. Trees of the anubing subgroup grow to a variety of heights and a variety of widths reaching 100 centimetres in diameter. In general the heartwood, or wood from the inner part of the tree, changes from yellow, to dark brown and eventually to a greenish-black the longer it is exposed to the air. It is a wood used for the posts, beams and rafters of houses. While I have found no direct listing of the Bikol manablíng, a listing for anablíng does refer to the tree Artocarpus rubrovenia, a tree of the harder wood species.[73] Additionally there are listings of the similar forms, anubling and kanubling, which refer to the tree Artocarpus cumingiana, and this, too, may very well be the intended reference.[74]
Lisboa only has an entry for tabigíˈ. The reference to piyágaw is modern. Of the two forms, only piyágaw has an identical reference in one of the other central Philippine languages, and that is in Hiligaynon. Even that reference is not a headword entry, but is included in an entry referring to trees with a particular type of bark.[77]. To confuse things even further, the entries in Lisboa differ, with the 1754 edition describing tabigíˈ as a 'good quality wood' and the 1865 edition as a 'bad quality wood'. It is possible that the two editions are referring to different trees which were separately identified at an earlier time. Commercial Woods of the Philippines describes piyágaw as having a straighter and better quality wood than tabigíˈ, and that might account for the difference.[78]
piyágaw tree (typ- Xylocarpus granatum / Xylocarpus obovatus) There is a confusion, however, and that is with the term attributed to the Bikol province of Albay. While amúgis is identified for this province as the tree Koordersiodendron pinnatum in Commercial Woods of the Philippines, hamúgis, clearly the same term, is also identified in the same source as referring to trees of the genus Buchanania which in Camarines is alitagtág (see Section 3(i)).
The final two trees in this section are those about which I have not been able to find further information, baró-bakagán and hamungíˈ. Both are defined by Lisboa as having a good quality wood. No similar terms have been found in the central Philippine languages to baró-bakagán, and only Cebuano appears to have a probable cognate to hamungíˈ and that is hamugi.[82]
hamungíˈ tree (typ- possessing a high quality wood) [MDL]
The most prominent buildings in a community were the residences of the inhabitants. There were, however, numerous other shelters which were built in connection with the communities' various endeavours. These included hunting, cultivation, defense and religious and funerary practices, in addition to a variety of temporary shelters which were set up to offer protection from the sun or rain, and what were perhaps more substantial structures available to those who were in transit when travelling. These secondary shelters are discussed first before the home residences and their construction. Buildings associated with burial practices were discussed in Chapter 13, 'Status and Social Conflict,' Section 1 (iv).
The two shelters associated with hunting were the údong and hámong each serving a different purpose (also see Chapter 17, 'Hunting and Trapping,' Section 7). The údong was built to offer protection from the sun when out on a hunt. The hámong however, was more like a hide, built in the trees and baited to attract birds. The hunters stayed hidden in the shelter from where they were able to shoot with arrows the birds which were attracted to the bait. Only Waray has the identical form as Bikol, but with a variant meaning, referring to a fence or trellis placed around plants for protection.[83]
hámong a small shelter built in trees and baited with fruit to attract birds which are then shot with arrows by those hiding in the shelter; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to construct such a shelter; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to construct such a shelter in a particular tree [MDL]
The Sanskrit aṭṭāla 'watchtower' has the right meaning, but presents problems of form. One of the fossilised affixes of Bikol is baN- which generally carries the meaning of 'likeness' or 'similarity'. This prefix, affixed to the Sanskrit borrowing, would produce a word of the sought after form and meaning, but such a derivation would not be easy to prove.[85]
sáday platform, landing built onto the tree houses called muˈóg; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to construct such a platform; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to build a platform onto a muˈóg; (fig-) Nalalábot akó kaiyán, nasáday lámang akó kon bagá sa muˈóg I take responsibility for that, and yet I'm relegated to being a platform on a tree house (Said of s/o who has primary responsibility, yet is not given the respect expected) [MDL] únoy MAG-, -ON to build a house in the branches of a tree; MAG-, -AN to build a house in a particular tree [MDL] únoy describing s/t made from a single piece (such as a knife, the blade and handle of which are made from the same piece of metal); also describing a natural phenomenon that by chance serves a useful function (such as a tree growing across a river, thus serving as a bridge): únoy na tuytóyan a natural bridge; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to make s/t from a single piece of material; (fig-) si únoy na buˈót nin táwo inflexible; fixed in one's ways [MDL] The only religious building referred to by Lisboa is the guláng-gúlang, described as a small hut or cabin in which ceremonies to the aníto, or ancestral spirits, are held. More detail on religious beliefs can be found in Chapter 3, 'Christianity,' Section 5. The same term can be found in Cebuano where it refers to what is essentially an altar table in which a pig is placed for sacrifice. An interesting tie to ancestors can be found in Tagalog where gulang refers not only to 'age', but also to one's lineage. While the term of normal reference to age in Bikol is gúrang, it appears as if the Tagalog term may have been borrowed and reduplicated for reference to the hut and it religious purpose.[87]
aníto ancestral spirits once represented by carved wooden statues [+MDL: MAG-, PAG--AN to make a sacrifice or hold a festival for a particular aníto; MAG-, IPAG- to offer s/t as a sacrifice; to present s/t as an offering; MAPAPAG- to ask that a sacrificial ceremony to the aníto be held] The definition in Waray is much the same as Bikol, except for an additional reference to any small dwelling, something also mentioned for Cebuano where the term also applies to the houses of the poor. In Hiligaynon, the additional information indicates the hut is where farmers would stay to chase birds from their cultivated fields. The definition in Cebuano also refers to a hut built to guard lucrative fishing grounds.[88]
lungálong a temporary hut or shelter in the forest or fields; MAG- to take shelter in such a structure [MDL: a temporary shelter erected in the fields, probably no more than an overhead covering to offer protection from the sun or rain (una sombra); MA- or MAG- to take shelter in such a structure; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to build such a structure from particular materials; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to shelter s/o]
baláy house [D- ALBAY]
The term appears across all of the central Philippine languages with the exception of Kapampangan. The Visayan languages carry the Spanish definition camarin 'a small room' with Cebuano adding an interpretation of 'hut' or 'stable for animals'. In Tagalog it is defined as a Spanish-type structure made long and low and covered with a canopy or awning. The Spanish translated kamálig as 'camarin' and it is this name, used in various phrases, which was given to the Bikol provinces by the Spanish and which remains until the present day. Interestingly, in the early dictionaries of Tagalog and Cebuano, the Bikol region is referred by the local term camalig, and not the Spanish equivalent.[91]
Camarínes: Ambós Camarínes political division referring to the provinces of Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur when combined at various times between 1864 and 1919; Los Camarínes early Spanish name for the Bikol region, used until 1636 when the region was divided into a northern part called Partído de Camarínes and a southern part called Partído de Ibalón; Partído de Camarínes was subsequently divided into Camarínes Norte and Camarínes Sur in 1829 [SP- camarin small room]
láyang-láyang a makeshift roof or covering; a makeshift shelter; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t as a covering for such a shelter; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to cover over a particular area as a shelter [MDL]
Whether the market (saˈód) was a permanent or temporary structure would depend on the size of the community and on how many days a week it would be held. It is likely that where the market was a weekly event, and the town had a small population, then the area devoted to the buying and selling of various items would be more makeshift in nature, perhaps simply a wall-less covering to protect buyers and sellers from the sun or rain. In more populous centres, the market area would inevitably be larger and very possibly more permanent. The identical term appears only in Waray where it has the verbal meaning of 'putting things out for sale'.[93]
Towns and villages in the lowland Philippines were generally located by the seashore or along creeks and streams (see Section 1). This was the area where early Filipinos chose to live (írok) for it gave them access to both the produce of the sea and the crops of the adjacent land. It was here that they chose their lots (runáˈ) and to build or buy (gátang) their houses (hárong). While írok has kept its meaning over the centuries, runáˈ has come to mean a region or locality, losing its specific reference to 'house lot'. Hárong, too, has lost some its meaning, in particular its reference to marriage. Literary references to 'house' are distinctively different. The three references noted by Lisboa are bunsáliˈ, hunúngan and luyáng (not reproduced below). For the most part, literary references in Bikol can be traced to an origin in the Visayan languages to the south, in particular, Cebuano, although in this instance such reference is not all that clear.[96] An exact reference to hunúngan can be found in Waray. Far more tenuous references can be found in Cebuano and Hiligaynon where, amongst a long set of meanings associated with the idea of stopping while doing something, are references to stopping while walking or travelling. Luyang in Waray refers to a hollow or cave.[97]
runáˈ locality, place, region [MDL: a house lot: Dumán sa runáˈ ni kuyán Over at or near that person's place; syn- lunáˈ] gátang MA-, -ON to buy a house, land, palm trees; MA-, -AN to buy these thing from s/o; MA-, I- to pay for these items with s/t (as gold); MAG-, IPAG- to sell such items; MAG-, PAG- -AN to sell such items to s/o; (fig-) Nagátang siyá rugáring kan úlay ni kuyán She was influenced by what that person said [MDL] hárong house, home; ... MAG-, -ON to build a house; KAG- homeowner; ... [+MDL: KA--AN village, settlement; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to build a house; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to build a house on a particular lot; MA- to be married: Nahárong na si kuyán That person is now married; -UM-; humahárong nguˈná of marriageable age; (fig-) Garó na pinaghárong an pagkatáwo That person is like a house (Meaning: That person is very fat); haróng-haróng MAG- to live on one's own (those who are newly married); MAG-, IPAG- to furnish the house of newlyweds; PAG- the lodgings or residence of newlyweds; magharóng-haróng nguˈná of marriageable age] Bahándi, a term which originates from the Sanskrit bhāṇḍa and means, among other things, 'treasure', refers to household furnishings and decorations in Bikol.[98] This is a term which is found across all of the central Philippine languages, generally carrying the meaning of accumulated wealth, including objects of individual value such as jewels, and household items such as furniture and pottery. For Tagalog and Kapampangan this value is gained from the possession of land.[99]
bahándi household furnishings or decorations; MA- referring to s/o who possesses such furnishings or decorations [MDL] [SANSKRIT bhāṇḍa]
ginagáwiˈ household needs, necessities: Daˈí máyoˈ kamí nin ginagáwiˈ We have nothing more than the basic household necessities; Áyaw an ginagáwiˈ na kuyán These people have all the household requirements they need [MDL]
sagamnó MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to take care, protect or put s/t away for safekeeping (one's household possessions); MANG-, PANG- -ON to keep all of one's household possessions in good repair [MDL] gagamhónan household furniture and goods, generally considered of little value, stored in the corners or behind a house [MDL] gamó-gamó MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to gather everything together with the hands; to glean [MDL]
Houses were built high on posts, harígi, (see Section 3) a necessary precaution as the location of the villages near the sea and waterways meant that they were often exposed to rising tides and flooding.[100] The understory of the house (sírong) was where domestic animals were kept, the pigs, chickens and cows, which were secured in their place by an enclosure made of wood or bamboo (álad). The under story was also a place to take shelter, or to carry out tasks such as the pounding of rice. In this area as well was a bamboo or wooden platform used for storage and by women when doing their weaving (bantál, see Chapter 11, 'Fibre, Cloth and Clothing,' Section 3 (i)). Álad is also found in Waray and Cebuano with the same meaning and constructed of the same materials. The enclosure as described for Cebuano is not only found under the house, but outside in the yard as well, and this would have also applied to Bikol.[101] As for sírong, this is the common term found in the other central Philippine languages with the exception of Kapampangan; the identical form used in Waray, and the cognate, silong, in Tagalog, Cebuano and Hiligaynon.[102]
álad enclosure; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to enclose or corral s/t with a fence of wood or bamboo; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fence off or enclose a particular area; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use particular wood or bamboo for such an enclosure [MDL] bantál a platform of bamboo or wood located beneath the house, used by women when weaving; also used for storage; MA- or MAG- to construct such a platform; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to lift s/t on a platform or pallet of wood; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to place a wooden pallet or platform beneath s/t so that it may be lifted on such a base [MDL] The Bikol term is complex. Alin- is an identifiable, though fossilised, prefix with the general meaning of 'similarity' or 'comparison'.[104] The closest identifiable root word in Bikol is pungáy referring to something filled to overflowing.
pungáy MA- or MAG- to fill s/t to overflowing (liquid, grain); (PAG-)-AN to be filled to overflowing (a container); syn- pingáy [MDL] Rooms were termed linambán or rinápat. The root of the first is clearly lanób 'wall'. As for rinápat a root form is far less evident. Rápat means 'close' or 'tight fitting', and refers, appropriately, to the way pieces of wood are joined together. This same meaning is shared with Kapampangan and Tagalog where the form is lapat. Rápat is the closest root form available in Bikol.[106]
lanób wall; MAG-, -AN to build a wall on or around s/t [+MDL: wall or partition of wood or bamboo; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON / MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to wall s/t in; to build a wall around s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to build a wall of particular materials; -AN: linalambán or linambán a cell, room] rinápat -AN: rinapátan room, compartment [MDL] rápat even; perfectly fitted, tightly fitting (such as the seam joining two pieces of wood); MAG-, PAG--ON to fit together or adjust the fitting of two pieces of wood; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to fit a new piece of wood to an existing one; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fit an existing piece of wood with another [MDL]
dúgoˈ corner of a house; also KA--AN: kadugóˈan [MDL] Aluntagá is a complex entry based on the root tága which is a 'roost for chickens'. AluN- is not a commonly recognised prefix, fossilised or otherwise. although there are a few roots affixed with alu- with no additional nasal.[110] The meaning appears to be the same as for aliN- which shows similarity or comparison. Mentrida for Hiligaynon lists both aluntaga and alintaga as alternate forms.
tága roost for chickens; MAG-, -AN to prepare a roosting place for chickens [+MDL: MA-, -AN to prepare a roosting place for chickens; MA-, I- to prepare such a roost from particular materials; MAG-, PAG--AN to raise s/o else's chickens, dividing the resultant chicks with the owner; to give the owner of the chickens one half of the chicks produced]
layó annex; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to add an annex or extension to a house; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to extend a house with an annex or addition [MDL] Pantáw is also found in the Visayan languages. Definitions for Waray and Cebuano are consistent with the usage of the term in modern Bikol, referring to a raised area near the kitchen and used for washing or scrubbing dishes, and serving as an area for the drying of clothes. The definition in Hiligaynon is not specific enough to attribute this same use. The additional meaning supplied for Cebuano and Hiligaynon is a 'stage' used for the presentation of shows during fiestas.[112]
taráwal a bar consisting of a pole or length of bamboo placed across a window or entry porch (pantáw) to impede entry; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place a bar across a gateway, window; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a pole or length of bamboo for this purpose [MDL] While the unique meaning of tuytóy is not found in the other central Philippine languages, sibáy, with different, though possibly related meanings, is found in Cebuano and Hiligaynon. In Cebuano what is described is an out-building used for storage. Encarnacion goes on to explain that the local people used it as an outhouse or dunny. For Hiligaynon, this was a separate structure used as a residence for slaves.[113]
sibáy nave of a church; covered walkway added along the outside of a house; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to add a nave to a church, a covered walkway to a house; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to make such an addition [MDL] Dapóg is found in all of the central Philippine languages, and its cognates are common in other of the Austronesian languages as well.[114] Bangbángan is not found elsewhere in the central Philippines, although it might be possible to apply the meanings attributed to its root, bangbáng, found in Kapampangan and Hiligaynon (the building or deepening of a channel or ditch) and Cebuano (the levelling of a hill or slope) to the Bikol entry, but the problems of proving such a connection are clear. Alisabwán can be analysed into a set of affixes and a root. The prefix aliN- was discussed above with its associated meaning of 'similarity' or 'comparison'. The suffix -an commonly shows 'place' or 'location'. The only root possible here is sabáw, although its central meaning is not easy to apply to the fully affixed form. Sabáw in all the central Philippine languages, means 'soup', and in most of them it also refers to the water found in coconuts. The locative form, sabáwan, refers to a place where soup is made, or, we would assume, a particular pot. If the ash from the hearth was collected at one time in a container resembling such a pot, it could account for the current form and its meaning.[115]
bangbángan framework, generally of wood, filled with soil and forming the foundation of the hearth or area for the cooking fire [MDL] alisabwán hearth [MDL: the part of the stove where ash is collected]
Houses were raised off the ground. Access to the living quarters would have been, most commonly, by a ladder or stairs (hagyán) comprising a number of steps (tángga). Special access was provided for those houses with pets, usually a cat or dog (alugúgan). Hagdán is the same term used in the other central Philippines languages with the exception of Kapampangan. Tángga, interestingly, appears to be a borrowing from Malay where it not only means 'step' or 'stair' but 'house ladder' as well.[116] Alugúgan is clearly a complex entry, divisible into a prefix of the form aluN- and the root gúgan. However, with a problem in deciding a definite meaning of aluN- (see above) and no root of form gúgan either in Bikol or the other central Philippine languages, the analysis cannot reasonably be taken further.
tángga a step, stair; rung of a ladder; MAG-, -AN to make steps on s/t [+MDL: tanggá step, such as those of stairs or a ladder, or cut into the ground; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to make a step; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to make steps in a particular area; to add a step to stairs or a ladder] alugúgan steps (typ- used by cats and dogs to enter a house) [MDL]
handíg MAG- to recline, lean back; MAG-, I- to lean s/t back; MAG-, -AN to recline or lean on s/t [MDL: MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to put a ladder or steps into place; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to lean a ladder against s/t; MAPA-, IPA- to have a ladder put into place; (fig-) Naísog ka rugáring taˈ igwá kang hinahandigán You act brave because you have powerful people to rely on]
yaˈyáˈ sagging, drooping; hanging open or hanging loose; MAG- to droop or sag; to hang open or hang loose [+MDL: yayáˈ hanging open (such as the jaw of the dead or one about to die); to droop or sag (as a damaged roof); MA- or MAG- to hang open or droop (the jaw); to sag; (fig-) Nagyayáˈ na iníng pagtápis kainí This skirt is sagging (Said when a skirt is improperly fastened)] In both Kapampangan and Cebuano, likid refers to the removal of a ladder, laying it on its side so that it was not available for use. It is likely that the original root of buklíd is likíd with processes of metathesis and deletion resulting in the final form. As for a prefix of the form bu-, this is far harder to confirm, although, as with hu-, there are pairs of what might be considered affixed and unaffixed forms.[118]
likíd a rope or bamboo ladder which may be rolled or hung up after one leaves or enters the house to prevent animals from entering [+MDL]
gáhap MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to walk through an area of tall grass or dense growth; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to go to get s/t which requires passing through such an area; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to carry s/t through such an area [MDL]
rágos ladder or stairs lacking a number of steps; MA- or MAG- to lack steps (stairs, a ladder); MAKA- or IKA- to fall down such stairs or a ladder (a person); MA--AN to be a residence with such stairs or such a ladder [MDL]
Space for widows (gáhaˈ) was left in the walls of the upper floor of the house. Entry through such openings could be obstructed by placement of a pole or length of bamboo, taráwal, of the same type that was used to restrict access to the entry porch, pantáw (see Section 5(i)). At times, such as the arrival of inclement weather, or when leaving the house unattended, it would have been necessary to close up the windows, an action to which the term tapól, in part, applies. The translucent oyster shell (kalampínay) which is mentioned as a window covering in the 1865 edition of the dictionary, was not used at the turn of the sixteenth century. The 1754 edition only mentions its use in the crafting of lamps.
tapól MA-, -AN: taplán or MAG-, PAG--AN: pagtaplán to close up an opening; to block a window; to obstruct or stand in a doorway or other location where people want to pass; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to block, obstruct or close with s/t [MDL] kalampínay shellfish (typ- possessing a translucent white shell used in the making of windows; referred to as kápis or oyster shell) [MDL: shellfish (typ- with a white shell) used in the making of lamps] [MDL 1865: shellfish (typ- with a white shell) used in the making of windows]
gukóp door; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to shut the door [MDL] tatá door; MAG-, -ON to construct a door [MDL: doorway, lintel; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to make a doorway; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to make a doorway in a particular part of a house]
kunsíˈ bolt, latch, padlock; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to bolt, latch or padlock s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to lock s/t away; to lock a box, chest [MALAY kunci, from SANSKRIT kuñcikā] [MDL]
gáraw pointed sticks located inside the entrance to fish traps which keep the fish from swimming out once inside; also: the ward of a lock or keyhole (the projecting ridge which prevents the turning of a key other than the proper one); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place such a guard on traps, locks; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t for such a guard [MDL]
For modern Bikol, nátad is the area in front of the house which may or may not have been enclosed. While Lisboa focuses on a somewhat different definition of this entry, referring only to the boundary delineating neighbouring properties, elsewhere there are references to the modern meaning (see the figurative entry). For Waray and Cebuano it is the modern Bikol meaning which is most relevant; the open area immediately in front of a house or shed for Waray, and a cleared area, generally near houses, used for top spinning and other sports in Cebuano.[125]
balatbát a fence of wooden posts or bamboo constructed to keep animals out of an orchard or other cultivated lands; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to build such an enclosure around a particular crop; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to enclose a particular area; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to construct such an enclosure from particular materials [MDL] taháng vacant, empty; blank; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to leave s/t vacant, empty, blank; to leave a space or small opening (as when writing or when building an enclosure); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to remove s/t so that a small opening can be made [MDL]
Before they are built, buildings needed to be planned (tugdás), and if this was to be done properly it was advisable to engage the services of an architect (anluwági). Only Kapampangan shares with Bikol this latter term, and while the Spanish-Kapampangan index offers the translation 'architect', the main entry in the dictionary is simply 'carpenter', clearly the person who will be carrying out the work. The terms 'architect' and 'carpenter' do appear to be distinct in Bikol, with pandáy (see Section 2) differentiated as the 'craftsman'.[127]
anluwági contractor, architect (referring to the one who takes the measurements and draws up the plans); MA- or MAG- to hold this position; var- anduwági [MDL]
taˈnáy MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to draw, sketch or mark out on the ground the plan for a house (indicating, for example, the length of the beams required) [MDL]
bugháˈ wood prepared for use in the construction of buildings; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to prepare wood for use in the construction of houses and other buildings [MDL] guró MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to mark off with a knife a part of s/t that is later to be cut or measured [MDL]
langbóˈ length of bamboo or a pole used to measure a post (harígiˈ) so that the proper size can be chosen before setting it upright; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to measure such a post; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a pole or length of bamboo for measuring [MDL] yuˈkód MA- exact, precise; perfect in every way; just right; a perfect fit; MAMA-, MA--ON or MAGMA-, PAGMA--ON to do s/t to exact or precise measurements; to do s/t with exact precision; (fig-) si mayuˈkód na buˈót nin táwo even-tempered; a well-adjusted person [MDL]
gúlod spinal column, spine [+MDL: the spine or center line; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to work on s/t which extends out from a center line (such as a valence or scalloping); gulód-gúlod: -AN describing s/t with many highs and lows or angles, such as a scalloped edging]
Tree logs which were later to be turned into the posts and boards needed to build a house were brought to the area of construction on a boat or raft (gábay). As the villages were located along rivers or by the sea, this would have been the most efficient, if not the only, mode of transportation. Only in Hiligaynon of the central Philippine languages is there the same term with a relevant meaning.[133]
Paságiˈ with the identical meaning is found only in Hiligaynon. It is most likely a loan from Malay where segi means 'side', or 'facet'.[134] Pa- in both Bikol and Hiligaynon is clearly recognisable as a causative prefix. The meaning of tápiˈ in Hiligaynon again parallels that in Bikol. In Waray and Cebuano, it refers to a board which is added to raise the side of a boat.[135]
sapsáp MAG-, -ON to lop s/t off; to cut off the rough edges of wood, bamboo; to chop s/t away; MAG-, -AN to hew s/t; to chop s/t off from s/t else [+MDL: MA--, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to hack off pieces of wood with an ax or bolo; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to hew wood; to hack off pieces from wood] paságiˈ cut timber or lumber; wooden planks [MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to square the sides of a log] tápiˈ MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cut wood into boards or planks [MDL] lípit band, strap (typ- placed around planks of wood to keep them steady or level); bamboo pole to which a row of containers is fastened to keep them from falling; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to steady or tie s/t with a band; to bind or strap s/t; to support s/t with a pole (a row of containers); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place a band around s/t; to put a bamboo pole across a particular area [MDL]
daˈtól MAPA-, PA--ON to place s/t one wants to cut on a block of wood; MAPA-, PA--AN to cut s/t on a chopping block or cutting board; PA- -AN: padaˈtolán or padatlán chopping block, cutting board [MDL] tarás MAG-, -ON to cut s/t; MAG-, -AN to cut s/t from [MDL: táras MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to even off the tips or ends of s/t by cutting them back; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cut off the longer tips or ends] hirínas MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to file down the cut ends of a piece of wood or bamboo to make them even and smooth; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to file s/t off the tip or end [MDL] hígod MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to even out a dent or depression by planing it level [MDL] siˈlák MA- split or cleaved; MAG-, -ON to cleave or split s/t [+MDL: silák MA- a stick, pole or post which has been well split; MA- or MAG- to split (wood): Abóng silák na káhoy iní This wood has really been well split] var- siˈák
laták cracked, split; MA- or MAG- to crack or split (as dry wood); MAKA- to cause such cracking (as the heat of the sun); KA--AN a crack, split, fissure [MDL] haˈtál MA- or MAG- to split, separate or weaken at the joint or seam (wood once tightly joined, when it has dried); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to separate s/t at its joint or seam [MDL]
ludyák MA- or MAG- to bulge out at the middle; to warp; to bend outward at the middle; (PAG-)-ON to have a bulge; to bend outward or warp at the middle; (PAG-)-AN to have a bulge at the middle (a part of s/t) [MDL] lublób MAG-, -AN to season s/t over an open fire (such as banana leaves used for wrapping rice) [+MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to heat or roast sugarcane over a fire; to heat wood which is bent over a fire so that it can be straightened]
talák MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to mend, fix or repair s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to mend with s/t [MDL] agúbay a wooden stick or length of bamboo which is joined or spliced to another that is split or cracked so that it will not split or crack further; MAG- to be joined in this way (two sticks, bamboo poles); MAG-, PAG--ON to join two sticks, bamboo for this purpose; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to join one stick or bamboo to another; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to strengthen a weakened stick or bamboo in this way [MDL] húnong MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to place one board over another which is in danger of breaking; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to reinforce one board with another to strengthen it; MAG-, PAG--ON to bring two boards together to make them stronger; MAG- to stand or sit on s/t which is in danger of falling or breaking (two people, as on the same branch of a tree); MAG-, PAG- -AN to join s/o who is in a precarious position (as seated or standing on a branch) [MDL] báyad MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to repair boards or planks that have split or have holes: Bayádi iyán karaˈtán kainíng káhoy Repair the damaged part of this piece of timber [MDL]
Once the required materials were readied, it would be time to start construction (pigód). Where the job was substantial, the workload would be shared (sangíˈ).
sangíˈ MA- or MAG- to share a workload (two people); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to divide a workload (such as giving part of a log to another so each can cut planks, or part of one's gold to another smith to work on completing a chain or earrings); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to share one's work in this way with another; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to give out a portion of one's work; KA- the shared portion of one's work; the person one shares work with [MDL]
panalíbot beam, rafter [MDL: the foundation on which the walls of a house are built; also known as patugmáran (see tugmád); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to construct such a foundation] líbot MAG- to walk around; ... ; MAGSA-, SA--AN to encircle or enclose s/t; MAGPA-, PA--ON to encircle, enclose, girdle, ring or surround s/t; MAKAPA-, MAPA--AN to be surrounded, enclosed; PA- an enclosure; circumference; area, environment, neighborhood, surroundings, vicinity ... [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON / MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to encircle s/t; to walk around s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to encircle with s/t; to walk around with s/t; PAG- encircling, surrounding]
baliˈát MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to lift one of two posts or boards lying side-by-side by inserting a pole in the space between the two, and levering one using the other as support; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to place a pole between two posts or boards for this purpose ... [MDL]
tugdók MAG-, -ON to assemble, build, construct or erect s/t; MAG-, -AN to erect or build s/t on a particular site [MDL: MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to drive s/t into the ground (as a post); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to drive s/t into s/t else] In the case of paniból the root, siból, refers specifically to an ancient belief that forbids anyone from entering a house where a wounded person is being treated. The prefix pang- is instrumental, referring, historically, to the function the posts might have in preventing entry. The relationship between paláhos and a root of the from láhos is far more tenuous. The prefix here would be the causative pa-. These posts would have been the tallest in the house as they extended up to the central ridge line. It is possible to draw a relationship between such posts and a root which basically means 'to pass through'.
láhos MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to pass through s/t (a nail through a board, a person through a town); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to drive in a nail (until it comes out the other side); to carry s/t through a town; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to go through a town on the way to get s/t [MDL] paniból posts used at the front of a house [MDL] siból (arc-) an ancient belief that it is forbidden to enter a house where a wounded person is being treated [MDL]
dughól MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to thrust upward; ... to thrust a beam into the opening prepared for it in the main post of a house; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a stick, pick or pole for this purpose; ... [MDL]
kadáliˈ a wooden bracket placed beneath the joint of a post and crossbeam (kabaháˈan) which carries the weight of the beam [MDL]
lahóng cross-beams placed between the posts of a house; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to put cross-beams into place [MDL]
The roof was constructed on the ground, and then raised into position (sayáp). The roof truss, the general term for the structural timbers which extend from the ridge to the wall, was in the shape of a shortened A-frame comprising a number of supporting beams. The rafters, the beams forming the internal structure of the roof (pagbó), were set in place at the angle desired and then further supported by crossbeams anchoring the two sides (bukóg). The whole roof structure was further supported by larger beams (saysáyan).
pagbó rafters of a roof truss (the structural timbers extending from the ridge of a roof to the wall plate, the point where the roof meets the wall); an A-frame [+MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to add such rafters to a roof truss; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use particular wood for such rafters] bukóg ...; a cross-bar of a carpenter's horse; the crossbeams placed between the rafters of the roof truss of a house, church or similar structure [MDL] saysáyan crossbeam used to support the roof truss or framework for the roof of a house); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to put such beams into position; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to support the framework for the roof with such beams [MDL] An extension could then be added to the trusses or rafters which would serve to channel rainwater away from the roof (kalantíkan). Only in Tagalog is there a term based on the same root as kalantíkan, realised as lantíkan.[137]
kugóhan the king post; the long post or pole to which the ends of the ridge beam of a house are attached [MDL] kalantíkan wood joined to the rafters of the roof of a house and used to channel away rain water) [MDL]
giˈatpán one side of the roof of a house; the thatching on one side of a roof [MDL] bubóng metal strip covering the seam at the peak and edges of a roof; -AN roof [+MDL: grass (typ- used for covering the ridge or peak of a roof); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cover the peak of a roof with such grass; -AN: binububóngan the ridge or peak of a roof] The part of the roof which meets or overhangs the walls of the building is referred to as the 'eaves' (sagyáp). While this term does not appear with a relevant meaning in the other central Philippine languages, there is an entry in Cebuano which refers to the same concept. Sagyáp in Cebuano is the leaf of a tree or plant which reaches the ground or is slanted downward toward the ground.[140]
pagpág MAG-, I- to shake s/t out (as a rug); MAG-, -AN to beat s/t to remove the dust; to beat s/t against s/t else [MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to shake or beat bundles of straw to be used for roofing; MANG- to flap the wings vigorously (fowl, birds); (fig-) Papagpagán taká ngatdihán kon maanggót akó I'll give you a good beating if I get angry] parás referring to layers of cogon grass (gugón) when used to thatch a house; KA- a layer of gugón thatch: saróˈ kaparás one layer; duwá kaparás two layers [MDL] tabugíˈ thick bunches of gugón grass, or fronds of the nípaˈ or anáhaw palms which cover the corners of a roof; MAG-, -AN to cover the corners of a roof with such bunches; -AN: tabugíˈan such bunches of grass or palm fronds [+MDL MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to cover the corners of a roof with such bunches of grass or palm fronds] suníp MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to keep s/t tucked into the bosom; to keep s/t in a narrow or constricted space; to insert straw into the holes in a roof; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to keep s/t in a sheltered or restricted place; to repair a roof by inserting straw into the holes [MDL]
takód MAG-, -ON to fasten, bind, tie or lash s/t; MAG-, I- to fasten or bind with s/t [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to tie or lash s/t (as the reeds called taríˈ-taríˈ used for the roof of a house or an enclosure); MA-, -AN: takdán or MAG-, PAG--AN: pagtakdán to lash or tie s/t to s/t else (as a frame)] kasiyáw reeds, twigs or fronds of the báhiˈ palm running from the top to the bottom of the roof of a house; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to roof a house with such material [MDL]
ruyróy fan palm (typ- palm possessing fronds used for the thatching of houses; Livistona chinensis); syn- anáhaw [+MDL] anáhaw fan palm (typ- tree, possessing fronds which may be used for hats and thatching for houses; Livistona chinensis); MANG- to go in search of the anáhaw fronds; syn- ruyróy [+MDL] nípaˈ palm (typ- possessing leaves used for roofing and walls, and a sap from which wine may be obtained and vinegar may be fermented; Nypa fruticans) [+MDL]
rákag-dákag MA- or MAG- to lift the head and neck (a goat); to raise the head (fish, eels); (fig-) Rákag-dákag na doy si kuyán That person is really strutting about [MDL] gi- short for manggí; indicates 'to smell like' as well as 'to be like' or 'to be similar to' [MDL]
kápa-kápa bamboo linked together with the fronds of the nípaˈ palm, used as a roof covering when straw is not available; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to link together bamboo and nípaˈ fronds to serve as a roof covering [MDL]
mismís worn thin, worn out; MAG- to become worn [+MDL: MA- or MAG- to become thin and worn (as one's clothes, the roof of a house)]
The walls, lanób, (see Section 5(i)) were constructed in the space between the posts of the house (bídang). In this space were placed bamboo or wooden poles (tikhón) serving as support for the covering material. Bídang is a recognisable term of measurement which has come to have this specific referent in Bikol. For Malay it is the numerical coefficient for flat items such as sails, mats and cloth. For Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon it refers to half a length of cloth. For Tagalog and Kapampangan the meaning appears to have become more generalised, referring in Tagalog to the cloth for a head scarf, and in Kapampangan to scraps of cloth or clothing.[143]
tikhón bamboo or wooden poles placed at regular intervals, used as supports for the walls of a house; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place such poles in a house; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use wood, bamboo for this purpose [MDL] Bamboo in the construction of the walls would have been split (salság) and then woven. Salság has the same basic meaning in the Visayan languages, referring generally to the splitting of items such as bamboo, but also similar items split lengthwise.[144]
sawáliˈ woven, split bamboo strips used for walling [MDL: mat (typ- made from woven bamboo in the style of the basket called bákol)] siklát a partition made of split and woven bamboo [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to weave split bamboo into a partition]
tindóg straight pieces of wood which are used to hold wall boards in place; MA- or MAG- to put such pieces of wood into place [MDL]
The floor of the house (salóg) would be constructed from either wood or bamboo. First to be put in place would be the horizontal wooden beams running from post to post and forming the outer perimeter of the floor (batangán). Next would be placement of the floor joists (sumálo), the timbers which would be arranged in parallel from wall to wall of the dwelling. When these were made from sturdy bamboo poles they were referred to as halhág. The joists would be tied to a wooden or bamboo pole (lúyo-lúyo) which was placed beneath them, and which itself would be tied to upright posts of the house. Between the posts and also used in support of the floor would be the battens (panalgán). Further stability would be achieved by a plank of wood or length of bamboo which ran down the middle of the floor, dividing it in two (atángan).
batangán horizontal wooden beams tied to the vertical posts of a house to which the floor joists are lashed; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to add such beams to a house; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to put such beans in place [MDL] sumálo floor joists [MDL] halhág large bamboo poles serving as floor joists upon which are laid the smaller bamboo slats for the floor; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use bamboo for such a purpose; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to position or place such floor joists in a house; (fig-) Garó na ing halhág sa tutulódan an kamót ta, harí-hári sa pagtuklós These floor joists are like our hands reaching out to a platter of food, and not reaching out to work (Said when many people have come to eat, but few to work) [MDL] lúyo-lúyo a wooden or bamboo pole attached to the upright posts of a house and tied beneath the bamboo joists of a floor, enabling the joists to be firmly anchored to the house frame; MA- or MAG- to put such poles into place [MDL] panalgán battens of wood or bamboo which are attached not directly to the main posts of a house, but to smaller posts or stanchions located between such posts and used to support the floor of a house; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to position such battens in a house [MDL] atángan a plank of wood or length bamboo, running down the middle of floor boards or bamboo slats, dividing them in two [MDL] Scant detail is supplied for the meaning of halhág in Hiligaynon, but the reference to full lengths of bamboo or wood used to construct a floor is very close the Bikol.[148] The root of atángan is clearly átang, although no such form with a relevant meaning can be found in Bikol. In both Cebuano and Hiligaynon, however, it refers wood or bamboo which is placed at the extremities of floor boards or bamboo slats to keep them in place.[149] Floors would be constructed most commonly of bamboo, although those of more substantial dwellings would make use of wood. The only wood Lisboa mentions in relation to flooring material is that of the Fish-tail palm, hágol, although there must have been a far wider range of timber in use for this purpose.[150]
luhóˈ hole; ... [D- PARTIDO] [MDL: MA- or MAG- to sink in (the ground or the floor of a house when stepped on); (PAG-)-AN to show signs of sinking or a depression (the ground, a floor); MAKA- to cause the ground or a floor to sink or dip] banáta part of the fish corral called sagkád which surrounds the opening, serving to prevent the fish from escaping after entering [MDL: bundles of bamboo used for making fish corrals or constructing the floors of houses; MAG-, PAG- -ON to place two bundles of bamboo side by side; MA-, -ON to place one bundle of bamboo by the side of another in such constructions; saróˈ kabanáta one bundle of bamboo]
The various beams and boards in the construction of a house would be fit together as firmly and tightly as possible (dáˈil, daghóp, hipíhip). These would be held together with wooden pegs (pasók, bárat) made, very possibly, from the wood of the bahíˈ palm (see Section 6(iv)). Pasók is found in Cebuano having the same meaning as Bikol with the additional reference to iron nails. Iron was also clearly available in Bikol at the turn of the sixteenth century and it is possible the use of iron in the construction of houses, including iron nails, was a sign of greater wealth. Lisboa's figurative example in his entry for batbát 'iron', seems to bear this out: Iyó man batbát an paglóng kainíng pagkaharóng-hárong ta The only iron you'll find in our house is that on the end of a top (Said when one is very poor and has poor accommodation). In modern Bikol it is not pasók which is used but pásak, a term which has the same meaning in Tagalog, a language which may have been consequential in bringing about the Bikol change.[152] Bárat with reference to a 'wooden peg' or 'wedge' is not found in the other central Philippine languages, and in Bikol the meaning has changed over time. In the modern language reference is to a bolt used to secure a door.
daghóp tightly joined, seamlessly joined, well fitted (wood); MAG-, PAG--ON to join together two pieces of wood with a perfect seam; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to join one piece of wood to another, fitting them tightly together; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to join an existing piece of wood with another ... [MDL] hipíhip an even joint between wooden boards; a tight fit; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to join boards evenly and tightly [MDL] pasók wooden peg, dowel; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to put s/t together with such pegs; to make such pegs [MDL] bárat bolt (as for a door); MAG-, -AN to bolt or lock a door; to lock s/o in or out; MAKA-, MA- -AN to get locked in or out [MDL: wooden peg, wedge or spike; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to peg s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place a wooden peg, wedge or spike into s/t]
talákid tie, lashing (typ- generally of rattan, used to tie the bamboo floor slats of a house and the posts of fish corrals); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to secure s/t with such a tie; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use rattan or rope for such a tie; MA-, -AN: talakirán or MAG-, PAG--AN: pagtalakirán to fasten or tie s/t in this way to s/t else [MDL] tihíl a small notch or groove made in wood or bamboo so that s/t can be attached or tied to it; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to make a notch or groove in s/t; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to remove a bit of wood, bamboo when making a notch [MDL] taplís MAG- to slip out of place (two pieces of wood not properly fastened or joined); MAGKA- to slip out of place (two pieces of wood not properly fastened or joined, one ending up over the other or side by side); MA-, -ON to slide one piece of wood out of place; MA-, -AN to slide one piece of wood out from a particular joint; MAG-, PAG--ON to slide two pieces of wood out of place; MAG-, PAG- -AN to slide two pieces of wood out from a particular joint [MDL]
huyón-húyon MAG- to move, sway in the wind (as trees); MAGPA- to coast [+MDL: MA- or MAG- to shake, sway (a house on stilts when weak or poorly built, trees due to the wind or when being climbed)] rampíng inclined, tilted, leaning to one side; MA- to be inclined or leaning (as a tree or other object blown partially over by a strong wind) [MDL] sangkíˈ a piece of timber or a beam used for support (as for a house during a typhoon, a dry-docked boat to keep it from falling on its side, a wall of earth to keep it from collapsing); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to support s/t with a sangkíˈ; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a length of timber as a prop or support [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to prop s/t up with a sangkíˈ]
rutós-rutós straining or creaking of the wooden joints of a house when many people visit, indicating that the lashings at the joints are weakening and may eventually break; MA- or MAG- to make this sound; Rutós-rutós na iníng hárong kainíng dakól na táwo The house is creaking with all of these people [MDL]
tagá- ... [MDL: MAG-, PAG--ON to do s/t frequently, but not always: magtagá-gúhit to write often; magtagá-bása, pagtagá-basáhon to read s/t from time to time; also: to carry s/t around on the person; to carry s/t around in the hand (applicable particularly to weapons): magtagá-tumbák, pagtagá-tumbakón to carry a lance in the hand; magtagá-uták to carry a knife in the hand; magtagá-cuentas to wear a necklace, beads]
When the structural phase of the building was completed, it was time for the finishing touches (hipnóˈ). This included the filling of holes, cracks or fissures with pitch, tar or resin (kápol) and the application of the first coating to protect the wood before the application of a final covering of varnish or paint (badháˈ). Hipnóˈ is a derived entry comprising the transitional prefix hing- and the root panóˈ 'to fill'. Kápol is found in all of the central Philippine languages defined as 'pitch' or 'resin', although its application is more specifically to the repair of pottery.[153]
panóˈ full ...; MAG-, -ON to fill s/t up; MAG-, I- to fill s/t up with [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to fill s/t up; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to fill s/t up with; MA- to be full] kápol pitch, tar, resin; MAG-, -ON to stick or fasten s/t with resin; MAG- to stick and dry (as a spot of mud on one's pants) [+MDL: also used as a stopper, or for filling holes, cracks or fissures; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to fill or smear s/t with pitch, tar or resin] badháˈ undercoat; the first coating over which one later paints; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to varnish or place a first coating on s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t as a primary coat; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to cover a portion of s/t with a primary coat; -ON: binabadháˈ describing s/t varnished or with a primary coat [MDL]
hagód MAG-, PAG--AN: paghagorán to rush to complete s/t (tiring o/s out to get it ready); to work on s/t in a rush; to tire o/s out by rushing to complete s/t [MDL] takmuˈál burly, oversized [MDL: takmúˈal deformed, ill- formed, poorly finished or executed; MAG- to be deformed, poorly finished: Nagtakmúˈal na iníng púlo kainíng sundáng The handle of this bolo is deformed; Nagtakmúˈal na iníng gákot This lashing is poorly tied] timhíl describing s/t that is higher in one part than another (such as a bench, a table); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to make s/t which is uneven in this way; MAGKA- to end up higher on one side: Nagkatimhíl na iyán langít-lángit That ceiling is higher in one part than another [MDL]
The wood for house posts was selected from hardwood trees that showed a particularly strong resistance both to moisture in the soil and the presence of bugs and insects. The Philippine climate, however, posed continual threats to the well-being of wooden dwellings which required timely inspection and repair. Posts would eventually rot (gúˈod, musmós, arás) and when these were not promptly attended to the structural integrity of the entire house would be compromised.
musmós MA- or MAG- to slowly rot or decay (wood); to smolder (a log when burned); Nagmumusmós na lámang iníng tagás These hardwood posts are slowly rotting; (PAG-)-AN to have a part slowly rot away (wood) [MDL] arás describing posts, poles or tree trunks which have rotted over time due to excessive moisture or dampness; MA- to rot (posts, poles); MA--AN to be affected by such rot (a house, a house-owner); (fig-) Garó ka arás na tabóg It is like you have rotted like the tabóg tree (Said when one has been heavily tanned by the sun, or has become dark for another reason, as if they were like well-rotted wood) [MDL]
anság fish corral (typ- constructed of bamboo in rivers, the upper portion always remaining above the level of the water); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to catch fish in such a fish corral; -AN: an inaanságan the fish caught in such a corral; (fig-) Garó na iníng anság iníng satóng hárong Our house is like an anság (Said when one side of a house is falling down) [MDL] tunás referring to a person, animal or bird that is wounded or hurt and dies alone in an isolated place; MA-, MA--AN to die and decompose in an isolated area (a body, carcass); MAKA- to cause a body to decompose; (fig-) Nagkatunás na lámang iníng pagharóngan mo Your house is rotting away from under you (Implying that you wait too long before doing s/t) [MDL]
gánga MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to bite s/t hard with the teeth to see if it can be cracked or chewed (such as a betel nut mixture); to attempt to crack s/t with the teeth; (fig-) Daˈí ikinagángang maˈmón Its not betel nut that can be chewed (Meaning: 'In a moment' or 'It won't be long'); Daˈí ikinagángang maˈmón an pagkatutóng kaidtóng hárong It won't be long before the house has totally burned to the ground; ... [MDL] úpod remnants, remaining pieces (of gold after completing a particular object; of wood after a house has burned); MA- to remain (gold, wood); MA, MA--AN to remain from s/t; to be remnants of s/t [MDL] tuháw MA- or MAG- to suddenly occur; to change or happen without warning; Timinuháw lámang idtóng kaláyo The fire has suddenly spread (Said when a second house catches fire from the heat of a house which is already burning); PANG--AN to be a place generally experiencing sudden change: Panunuhawán iníng dágat This sea is subject to unexpected changes [MDL]
ringgál destroyed, in ruins (a fence, wall, enclosure); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to destroy; to pull down, take apart or dismantle a fence, wall [MDL]
bisláng detached (the bamboo floor or stairs from a house); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to detach the floor or stairs; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to detach the floor or stairs from a house; MA- to become detached [MDL] tingkál MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to dismantle a house; to remove the walls of a house [MDL]
With predominant populations resident on the coast and along the banks of rivers, it was not unexpected that road systems were poorly developed. Add to this the lack of wheeled vehicles and it becomes clearer that movement was primarily by boat both for people and goods. There were roads, for the most part in towns, used daily and maintained to the degree needed, and trails into the hinterland to access forests and agricultural fields. These could be impermanent, affected by the annual rains and rendered impassable by both mud and standing water. Bridges were also cyclical, thrown up when the rivers were calm and good for seasonal passage, and washed away as the river waters rose and raged in the wet. Towns needed fresh water to survive and flourish. Where natural springs did not exist, wells were dug to access the water which lay fairly close to the surface. These were carefully maintained with covers and surrounds to keep out curious animals and protect both the water and individuals from accidental falls. For communities along the coast access to fresh water could be more difficult, with salt incursions turning water brackish. At such times an accumulation of rain water would be sought in hill crevices, but lacking such access, a town would survive for a time on salt-tainted water. Tools were needed in any construction, and those which were available would be readily recognisable in the modern world. Materials would clearly differ, with natural products serving in the place of manufactured items today. Abrasives would be sourced from the leaves of particular trees or the skin of the ray fish, and files from the rough outer covering of specific types of bamboo. Among the townsfolk, there were those who were particularly adept at working with wood or iron, and they would be called upon to perform the more technical tasks of the carpenter and blacksmith. The forests were the home of magnificent trees which produced wood resistant to the heat and moisture of the climate and depredations of voracious insects. These were available for the posts and frames of houses, and where small populations made reasonable demands on such resources, they remained plentiful. In addition to the houses which were places of permanent habitation, there were also numerous shelters which were occupied for only short periods of time. These included those built for the hunt in a forest, and for cultivation in the fields. Defensive shelters were also built, bamboo towers serving as lookouts, and defensive walls to halt incursions. More permanent shelters were made available for markets, and for travellers who were passing through. It was not surprising that towns located along the seashore or the banks of rivers would have houses built on posts to keep them safe from tidal surges and floods. While house posts and frames were made from wood, other materials dominated in the construction of the roof, walls and floor. Included were the native grasses and fronds from various palms for both the roof and walls, and bamboo which was woven for the walls and split for the floors. Various widths of rattan strips served as the ties and lashings and wooden pegs as nails. Each construction was planned, with help sought from a particularly skilled carpenter. Wood was aged to avoid shrinkage, warping and splitting. Sketches were made, and a design laid out on the ground. Materials were chosen, prepared, measured and cut to size. The posts and frames were put in place, stanchions went up for the walls, and battens and joists for the floor. The roof was constructed on the ground and then lifted into place. Next would come the final coverings, with roof, walls and floor completed with the material most suitable and most available in the area. Like all constructions, care was needed to prevent decay. Where repairs were not timely, posts would begin to rot, walls to slant, and roofs to leak. In a region exposed to annual typhoons and intermittent earthquakes, such structures would be severely compromised, and the effort and planning which went into their construction would be soon be lost. ENDNOTES [1] Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, 1609, Cambridge: The Hakluyt Society - Cambridge University Press, 1971, p. 270 (also in Blair and Robertson, vol.16, 'Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (concluded),' pp. 25-210, p. 117) [2] Pedro Chirino, S. J., 'Relacion de las Islas Filipinas,' 1604, Manila: Historical Conservation Society, 1969, Chapter 9 describes an example in Rizal (Taytay)] [3] Juan José Noceda and Pedro de Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, 1754, Manila: Imprenta de Ramirez y Giraudier, reimpreso 1860, see paragos, gatang-gatang, batlag; Antonio Sánchez de la Rosa, Diccionario españ ol - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, 3rd edition, aumentado por Antonio Valeriano, Manila: Santos y Bermal, 1914, see cangga, sangol, siqui siqui; Juan Feliz de la Encarnacion, Diccionario españ ol - bisaya, Manila: Imprenta de los amigos del pais, á cargo de M. Sanchez, 1852, see galingan, ngipon; Alonso de Mentrida, Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya de la Isla de Panay, Manila: La Imprenta de D. Manuel y de Felix Dayot, 1841, see sangga; Diego Bergaño, Vocabulario de la lengua Pampanga, en romance, 1732, Manila: Imprenta de Ramirez y Giraudier, Reimpreso 1860, see dulang. [4] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see lansangan; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see lansangan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see lansangan; Bergaño, Pampanga, see lansangan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see lunang. [5] Malcolm W. Mintz, 'Anger and Verse: Two Vocabulary Subsets in Bikol', 1991. Vical 2: Western Austronesian and Contact Languages, Papers from the 5th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Auckland: Linguistics Society of New Zealand; pp. 231-244. [6] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see dating; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see datong; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see datong; Bergaño, Pampanga, see datang; R. O. Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, Singapore: Kelly & Walsh Ltd, n.d, see datang. [7] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see daan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see dalan; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see dalan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see dalan; Bergaño, Pampanga, see dalan. [8] Diego Aduarte, O.P. Historia de la provincia del Sancto Rosario de la Orden de Predicadores, Manila, 1640, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 30, pp. 115-322, pp. 162-163] [9] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bobon, talaga; Fr. Leo James English, Tagalog - English Dictionary, Manila: Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, 1986, see talaga; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bobon; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bobon; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bobon; Bergaño, Pampanga, see talaga; Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see telaga; Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, see taḍaga (accessed 10 April 2018). [10] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see panday; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see panday; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see panday; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see panday; Bergaño, Pampanga, see panday. [11] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see lagadi; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see lagadi. [12] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see lagari; Bergaño, Pampanga, see lagari. [[13] Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see gergaji. [14] Martin Haspelmath and Uri Tadmor, eds., Loan Words in the World's Languages, The Hague: De Gruyter Mouton, 2009; Chapter 27 'Loan Words in Indonesian', Uri Tadmor, pp. 686-716; p. 694 [15] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see laric; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see laric, butung [16] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see ladic. [17] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see lalic; Bergaño, Pampanga, see lalic. [18] 'Lathe,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 6 May 2018); Early Wood Lathes (accessed 6 May 2018. [19] 'Plane (tool),' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 6 May 2018) [20] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see catam; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see catam; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see catam; Bergaño, Pampanga, see catam. [21] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sapio. [22] 'Placoid scales on Sharks and Rays,' Thought Co (accessed 10 May 2018). [23] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see quilquig; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see quilquig; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see kilquig. [24] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pagi; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pagi; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see pagi; Bergaño, Pampanga, see pagui; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see pagui and pagui nga dahunan in the Appendix 'Nombres de algunos peces,' p. 427. [25] 'Ficus ulmifolia,' Useful Tropical Plants (accessed 10 May 2018). [26] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see hagupit; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see hagopit; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see hagupit. [27] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see Appendix 'Nombres de algunos áboles y plantas,' p. 409. [28] P. Fr. Manuel Blanco, Flora de Filipinas: Segun el sistema sexual de Linneo, Agustino Calzado, ed., 2nd edition (1st edition 1837), Manila: Imprenta de Miguel Sanchez, 1845, p. 472. [29] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gopit; Bergaño, Pampanga, see gopit which only appears in the Spanish-Kapampangan index. [30] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see quiricod; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pait. [31] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see locob; Bergaño, Pampanga, see licup; Fr. Andres Carro, Vocabulario de la lengua Ilocana, añ adido y puesto en major order alfabético por dos religiosas del mismo orden, primera edicion, 1849, Manila: Establicimiento Tipografico del Colegio de Santo Tomas, see licup. [32] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see locob; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see locob. [33] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see tiguib; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see tigib; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see tiguib. [34] 'Adze,', Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 16 May 2018). [35] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see daldag; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see daldag; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see locob; Bergaño, Pampanga, see daras. [36] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see paracol; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see palacol; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see palacol; Bergaño, Pampanga, see palacol. [37] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see patoc, patoc patoc; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see patoc] [38] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sondang; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sundang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sondang; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sundang; Bergaño, Pampanga, see sundang. [39] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see itac; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see otac] [40] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see goloc; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see goloc. [41] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gonting; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see gonting; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gonting, salagonting; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see gunting; Bergaño, Pampanga, see gunting. [42] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see catli; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see catli; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see catli; Bergaño, Pampanga, see catli. [43] Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, see katari. [44] Henry Yule and AC Burnell, Hobson - Jobson: The Definitive Glossary of British India (1886), Kate Teltscher, OUP, Oxford: 2013; p. 179-180. [45] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bontol; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bontol, bondol, bongdol. [46] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see palo; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see palo; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see palo; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see palo. [47] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see paco; Bergaño, Pampanga, see paco. [48] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see raysang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see lansang; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see lansang. [49] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sipit; Bergaño, Pampanga, see sipit. [50] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see gimpit; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see compit; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see kimpit. [51]] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gamat; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see gamat; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gamat; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see gamat; Bergaño, Pampanga, see camang. [52] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see golong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see golong; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see calo; Bergaño, Pampanga, see calo. [53] 'Understanding Wood Grain,' Wood Magazine.com (accessed 20 June 2018) . [54] Alcina, Ignacio Francisco, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, 1668, vol. 1 and vol. 2, translated, edited and annotated by Cantius J. Kobak and Lucio Gutiérrez, Manila: UST Publishing House, 2002, Chapters 1 and 2. [55] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines: Their Preparation and Uses, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 14, Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1916, pp. 122-123. [56] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see balayong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see balayong; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bayarong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see balayong. [57] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, p. 194; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see betis; Bergaño, Pampanga, see betis. [58] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, p. 178; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pagatpat; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see pagatpat; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pagatpat; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see pagatpat. [59] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see losong losong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see losong losong. [60] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 142 -143. [61] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 120-121; 'Intsia bijuga,' Ecocrop (accessed 20 June 2018). [62] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see ipil; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see ipil; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see ypil; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see ipil. [63] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 116-117; 'Acle,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 28 June 2018). [64] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see acli; Bergaño, Pampanga, see acli. [65] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see guisoc; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gisoc; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see guiso. [66] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 168-169; 'Shorea guiso', Useful Tropical Plants (accessed 28 June 2018); The Plant List: A working list of all plant species, (accessed 28 June 2018). [67] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see molaluin; Bergaño, Pampanga; E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 208-209; 'Vitex parviflora', Tropical Plants, http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Vitex+parviflora [68] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see hamorauan nga lanhan, hamorauan nga manabahon; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see hamolaoan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see hamulauan. [69] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 104-105. [70] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 164-165. [71] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, p. 179; Flora Malesiana, 'Planchonia spectabilis,' http://portal.cybertaxonomy.org/flora-malesiana/node/7839. [72] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, p. 179; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see malabonga. [73] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, p. 103; 'Kalutot,' Philippine Medicinal Plants, http://www.stuartxchange.org/Kalulot.html [74] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, p. 101; 'Anubing,' Philippine Medicinal Plants (accessed 10 July 2018) [75] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see anislag; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see anislag. [76] 'Xylocarpus.obovatus,' JSTOR Global Plants (accessed 5 July 2018). [77] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see hulac. [78] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, p. 138. [79] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 143-144; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see amoguis. [80] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see banaba; Bergaño, Pampanga, see banaba. [81] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 176-177; 'Lagerstroemia speciosa,' Useful Tropical Plants (accessed 2 July 2018). [82] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see hamogi. [83] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see hamong. [84] Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see kota; Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, see koṭṭa. [85] Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see bentara; Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, see vārttāhara, and Sanskrit Dictionary, see aṭṭāla; Malcolm W. Mintz, 'The Fossilized Affixes of Bikol,' Currents in Pacific Linguistics: Papers on Austronesian Languages and Ethnolinguistics in Honor of George W. Grace, ed. Robert Blust, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics C-117, 1991, p. 265?91, pp. 274-276. [86] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see moog; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see moog; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see moog. [87] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gulang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see golang golang. [88] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see payag; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see payag; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see payag. [89] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see agad. [90] Bergaño, Pampanga, see balay; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see balay; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see balay. [91] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see camalig; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see camalig; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see camalig; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see camalig. [92] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see botocan. [93] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see saod. [94] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sangput. [95] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sangpit; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sangpit; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sangpit (listed as sanpit, but clearly an error as it follows and precedes in alphabetical order the terms sangpay ... sangpot. [96] Mintz, 'Anger and verse: two vocabulary subsets in Bikol,' in Vical 2: Western Austronesian and Contact Languages, Papers from the 5th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Auckland: Linguistics Society of New Zealand: 1991, pp. 231-244. [97] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see honong, luyang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see honong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see hunong. [98] Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, see bhāṇḍa. [99] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bahandi; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bahandi; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bahandi; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bandi; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bandi. [100] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, p. 270. [101] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see alad; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see alad. [102] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see silong; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sirong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see silong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see silong. [103] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see alimpungayan; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see alimpongayan. [104] Mintz, 'The Fossilized Affixes of Bikol,' p. 272. [105] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, p. 270. [106] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see lapat; Bergaño, Pampanga, see lapat. [107] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sorong, sorongan; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see solong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see solong. [108] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see locloc. [109] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see aluntaga; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see alontaga; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see aluntaga, alintaga. [110] ] Mintz, 'The Fossilized Affixes of Bikol,' p. 273. [111] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bantayao; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bantayao; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bantayao. [112] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see pantao; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pantao; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see pantao. [113] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sibay; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sibay. [114] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see dapog; Bergaño, Pampanga, see dapug; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see dapog; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see dapog; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see dapog. [115] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sabao; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sabao; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sabao; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sabao; Bergaño, Pampanga, see sabao. [116] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see hagdan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see hagdan; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see hagdan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see hagdan; Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see tangga. [117] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sandig; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sandig; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sandig; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sandig; Bergaño, Pampanga, see sangdi. [118] Bergaño, Pampanga, see liquid; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see liquid. [119] Bergaño, Pampanga, see tangan, nangan; Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see tangan. [120] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pinto; Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see pintu. [121] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see tocyab; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see toquiab. [122] Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see kunchi; Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, see kuñcikā; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see socog. [123] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see solot; Bergaño, Pampanga, see sulut. [124] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see galao; the reference to 'fish' seems partial and may indicate something is missing from the entry; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see garao; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see galao; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see galao. [125] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see natad; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see natad. [126] ] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see batbat; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see tahang; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see tahang. [127] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see dapdap; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bucao; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see dapdap; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see dapdap. [128] Bergaño, Pampanga, see anloagui. [129] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see tanay; Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see báyang. [130] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see socol; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see socol; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see socol. [131] 'Carpentry/Hand Tools/Marking Tools,' Wikibooks, English, n.d. (accessed 25 July 2018. [132] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see labtic; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see labtic; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see labtic; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see labtic. [133] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see gabay. [134] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see pasagi; Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see segi. [135] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see tapi; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see tapi; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see tapi. [136] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bongcalo. [137] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see lantican. [138] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see atup; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see atop; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see atup. [139] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bobong; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bubung; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bobong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bobong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bubung. [140] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sagyap. [141] 'Phragmites karka,' Useful Tropical Plants (accesssed 28 July 2018). [142] 'Vocabulario de la Lengua Bicol,' Wikipedia, Bicol, n.d. (accessed 1 August 2018). [143] Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see bidang; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bidang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bidang; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see birang; Bergaño, Pampanga, see birang. [[144] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see salsag; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see salsag, basag; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see salsag, basag. [145] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, p. 93. [146] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see siclat; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see siclat; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see siclat; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see siclat. [147] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see salug; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see salog; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see salug. [148] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see halhag. [149] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see atang; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see atang. [150] 'Caryota cumingii: Fish-tail Palm,' NTFP Product Database (accessed 5 August 2018). [151] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see banatan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see banata. [152] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pasoc; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pasac. [153] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see capul; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see capol; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see capol; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see capu l; Bergaño, Pampanga, see capul. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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