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OVERVIEW The opening sections of this chapter focus on the hunting weapons available in the Philippines at the turn of the sixteenth century. Section 1 looks at the arquebus or matchlock gun, discussing its origin, its loading and firing and the game that were its target. In Section 2 is a brief look at darts and blowguns, used primarily for, but not limited to, the shooting of birds, and in Section 3 is a discussion of bows and arrows. Examined are the materials used in their construction and the poison that could be applied to their tips to make the hunt more successful. Spears and lances are discussed in Section 4 touching on the materials that made up the shaft as well as those that formed the spearheads. A variety of spears existed in the central Philippines, crowned by a variety of spearheads, and a description of these is included in the discussion and endnotes. Section 5 is an extended discussion of snares and traps, beginning with the types which were found: those resembling a fixed crossbow which shot darts or arrows at passing game, those comprising a rope and noose which caught game by the neck or feet, and those which were simply pits dug in the ground and lined with sharpened stakes or spikes for larger game such as wild boar, buffalo and deer. The final parts of the section look at specific animals, how and why they were trapped, and the traps that were used against them. Included are monkeys, rats and mice, wild boar and buffalo, deer, civet cats, crocodiles, birds and fowl. Nets are examined in Section 6, how they were made and repaired, where they were used and the variety that existed. Included in the discussion is the black dye applied to make them less visible to game, and the multiple numbers of small nets which were set up together to channel game in the right direction. Section 7 is a general discussion of hunting. Touched on here is the number of hunters who would set out together and the preparation undertaken before setting out, including noting where animals tended to pass and where they tended to gather. Also discussed are the various techniques used to catch game, whether running after them, blocking their way, or lying in wait in a nearby shelter. Dogs, accompanying hunters on most of their outings, is the topic of the final chapter. Examined here are how they were selected when puppies, how they were trained and how they were cared for throughout their lives.
The early guns in the Philippines were the arquebus or matchlock. These were most likely based on the Javanese arquebus appearing in Java the 14th century, introduced into that region from China. There is a long and interesting history of the development of this type of gun in both Asia and Europe, and the Wikipedia references included here offer both a detailed summary and references for further research.[1] The Bikol, bádil, with its identical forms in Waray and Cebuano, and the cognate baril in Tagalog, Hiligaynon and Kapampangan,[2] is a borrowing of the Malay bedil which is itself a borrowing from Tamil.[3] In Tamil the form veṭi is a root which refers to various types of detonations or explosions. It is the basis for a variety of terms having this basic meaning, such as veṭittal 'blasting'. Its earliest reference was probably to the detonation of gunpowder associated with the firing of guns.[4] A two page article in Dutch by H. Kern discusses the linguistic origin and subsequent borrowing of this term into various languages of Southeast Asia.[5]
Úbat is a borrowing from Malay where it relates most commonly to medicines, with wider references to chemicals and potions. The reference to 'gunpowder' is clearly from the Malay ubat bedil which has this specific meaning.[7]
manílang gunpowder; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to load a weapon with gunpowder; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to place gunpowder into an arquebus or matchlock gun [MDL] úbat gunpowder; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to load a gun with gunpowder; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to place gunpowder into a gun [MDL] [MALAY ubat as in ubat bedil 'gunpowder']
subsób MAG-, -AN to sear or singe s/t [MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to light a fuse (such as that of a matchlock gun); to set light to s/t (such as the powder of a shotgun); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t for lighting (a wick, fuse, fire)] písi' rope, cord, heavy string; MAG-, -ON to twist strands into rope [+MDL: thick cord or rope MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to twist strands into rope]
salá' incorrect, mistaken, wrong; ... MAKAPA-, MAPA- to make a mistake; to err or blunder; to fumble, miscalculate [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to aim incorrectly; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to throw s/t incorrectly; MA-, -AN: sa'lán or MAG-, PAG- -AN: pagsa'lán to miss the target; to fail to hit the right spot; Salá' mo You missed]
The blowgun, referred to as talayhóp (in modern Bikol talayóp), is described by Lisboa as reserved for the shooting of birds. The more general term for blowgun, sungpít, with cognate forms found in all the central Philippine languages, may also have been used primarily for the shooting of birds, although it clearly had wider usage.[16]
sungpít blowgun, blowpipe; MAG-, -ON to shoot s/t with a blowpipe [+MDL: generally used for shooting birds, but used as well for other game]
The general term in Bikol for a bow which is used to shoot arrows is búsog, a term with an identical form in all of the central Philippine languages with the exception of Kapampangan which uses bayi.[21] Additionally, Bikol has the unique entry sikaróm which is a bow described as so large that it has to be held in place with the feet when attaching the string.
sikaróm bow (typ- for shooting arrows; very large, requiring it be held in place by the feet when attaching the string) [MDL]
impíg string for a bow made from the hanging roots of the banyan tree [MDL]
hutáy MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to stretch or tighten a string, cord; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG?AN to to tighten a cord or string between set points [MDL] butád MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to stretch s/t taut or rigid; MA-, -AN: butarán or MAG-, PAG--AN: pagbutarán to stretch s/t taut across a particular space [MDL] dulóng MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to turn or tighten the string of a bow when it becomes slack; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to turn or tighten the string of a particular bow [MDL] húkang MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to slacken the string of a bow by moving it to the innermost notch; (fig-) Kada'í mahúkang kainíng bu'ót mo How inflexible you are (referring to s/o who refuses to change their mind or ways) [MDL] sukód the center-point of a bow or crossbow, used for taking aim; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to measure or calibrate the center- point of a bow or crossbow; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t for such calibration [MDL]
palsó referring to the shaft of an arrow which contains an opening into which the arrowhead is placed [MDL] dungpíl an iron arrowhead which is placed at the end of a bamboo shaft [MDL] tinurón rice (typ- the stalk of which is also used for the shaft of an arrow) [MDL] panglád the feathers on the shaft of an arrow; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place feathers on the shaft of an arrow; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to put such feathers into place; -AN: an pinangládan an arrow with feathers [MDL]
báhi' palm (typ-, possessing a hardwood made into pegs used in the construction of boats and other structures); Livistonia rotundifolia [MDL] garigí' the saw-like indentations placed on arrowheads made from the wood of the bahí' palm; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to make such indentations on this arrowhead [MDL]
sarapóng arrowhead or spearhead with three or more barbs; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to make such an arrowhead; (fig-) Kasarapongáng pútik mo iyán What a lie that is [MDL] Arrows in which the shaft and head were a single piece, generally of bamboo with a sharpened tip, must have also been common, although Lisboa has no mention of these for Bikol. The greatest number of references is for Kapampangan where Bergaño names various types of bamboo suitable for such a purpose.[26] The arrowheads could be treated with poison. Lisboa's reference for Bikol is to the milky sap of the díta' tree. There is, however, a problem. A second entry in Lisboa, reflected as well in modern Bikol, is díta, and this is the Alstonia scholaris which produces a sap used medicinally for the treatment of sores and wounds, with other parts used to treat a wide variety of ailments. This reference is clearly not to a poison. Noceda, for Tagalog, also lists both forms; the first, the poison, given as a synonym for aboab. The second is in reference to a tree with the medicinal properties of quinine (due to the alkaloid echitamine found in the bark).[27] References in Cebuano are also separate: dita, given as a synonym for bota, described as a tree producing a poisonous sap, and a second entry as a tree useful in the production of cordage. Sánchez de la Rosa has only one listing, and he equates the two: the roots used medicinally, producing a type of quinine, and the sap producing a poison.[28] The two terms are different, separated by a final glottal stop (and final stress in the Lisboa reference), and yet they are similar enough to wonder if their use as a medicine as well as a poison is one of dosage or amount and reference is actually to the same tree.[29]
díta tree (typ- possessing a sap said to aid in the healing of sores and wounds; Alstonia scholaris) [+MDL: ditá] When ready to shoot, the arrow would be placed into the bow (supít), the string pulled back to create greater force and tension (híngat), and then released (lubtík).
híngat MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to prepare for shooting (as by pulling back the string of a bow or locking the string of a crossbow into position; and by extension: cocking the trigger of a gun; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PA--AN to threaten s/o by preparing to fire; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to load a weapon in preparation for firing [MDL] lubtík referring to the snapping action of the string of a bow; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to release s/t with a snap (as the string of a bow when shooting an arrow); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to hit s/o with a bow string when released [MDL]
Spears were used for many purposes, in combat (see Chapter 1, 'War and Conflict,' Section 1), in fishing and in hunting. The greatest variety were used when fishing, and these were clearly defined (see Chapter 19, 'Fishing,' Section 3). Spears used for combat and for hunting are far harder to distinguish, and this may have been because they were used for both. The discussion here looks at those spears which were used primarily for hunting. The kaláwit is defined by Lisboa as a 'harpoon', a weapon used in hunting or in combat and so clearly not the weapon that English speakers would associate with the term. The definition in the dictionary of the Real Academia Española encompasses the broader definition used by Lisboa.[32] Spears with harpoon-like points are also mentioned by Francisco Colin in his 'Native Races and their Customs.'[33] The defining feature of the kaláwit is its single or twin barbs, and this also accompanies the definition of the weapon found in Tagalog and Waray with Cebuano treating only its hooked nature.[34] The root word here is káwit 'hook', with the relevant infixation of -al- discussed in some detail in Chapter 11, 'Fibre, Cloth and Clothing,' Section 7(ii).
káwit a hook; also describing s/t shaped like a hook; MAG-, -ON to hook s/t [+MDL: kawít steel or wooden pot hook or grappling hook]
sagód MA- or MAG- to become enmeshed, entangled (the shaft of a harpoon or spear (kaláwit) with its attached cord after it has hit its prey); MA-, -AN: sagorán or MAG-, PAG- -AN: pagsagorán to become enmeshed, entangled in s/t [MDL] nínok MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to spear a wild boar at night using a kaláwit; also applicable to other animals; MAG-, -AN to hunt for wild boar in this way at night in a particular area; (fig-) Apa'nó na iníng paglakáw mo; garó ka na ing naninínok What's wrong with the way you are walking; it's like you've been speared (Said when one has trouble walking) [MDL]
garód spear; MAG-, -ON to spear s/o or s/t [MDL: a dagger (baladáw) placed on a shaft, resulting in a weapon resembling a spear; MA- or MAG- to use this type of weapon for killing or wounding] baladáw dagger (typ-); MAG- or -ON to be armed with a dagger; to be carrying a dagger; MA-, -AN to arm s/o with a dagger; MA-, I- to place a dagger in s/o's waistband; MANG-, PANG--ON to kill s/o with a dagger [MDL]
tabulá' spearhead (typ-, four-sided, like a dart); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to shape s/t into such a spearhead [MDL]
rímot decoration or design made from lead, tin or another metal on the haft or handle of a lance or other weapons; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to decorate a haft or handle in this way; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use lead or tin for such decoration [MDL]
tikalá a metal ring used to fasten a handle to a knife blade; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fasten a handle to a knife by means of a tikalá; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use such a ring for such fastening [MDL]
bá'at rattan band placed around the hilt of large knives or similar objects for added strength; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use rattan for this purpose; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to strengthen a large knife with such a band; -AN: an bina'átan a knife strengthened with such a band [MDL]
barangbáng sharply pointed; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to spear s/t with a sharply pointed object; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to throw s/t that is sharply pointed [MDL] tutók MA- or MAG- to be deeply embedded (s/t hurled or flung); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to be embedded deeply into s/t; to be stuck fully into s/t; to be driven deeply in [MDL] duldóg MAG-, -ON to poke or jab s/t [MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to spear s/o without releasing the spear from the hand; to lunge at s/o with a spear; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a spear in this way; -AN shaft of a spear, lance] kiból-kiból MA- or MAG- to be driven fully into the body (the head of a lance or spear); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to drive the head of a lance or spear fully into the body [MDL] simát MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to pierce through and through (as clothing by a spear or lance; a leaf or other items when stringing them together); to spear s/t through and through; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to pierce with s/t (as with a spear, lance); MA- to get pierced: Nasimát nin tumbák si magibóng na pá'a ni kuyán Both that person's thighs have been pierced by a lance; MAGKA- to end up being pierced: Nagkasimát si bádo' ko kaidtóng tumbák My clothes were pieced through and through by a lance [MDL]
halbó' MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fall from the place where it entered the body (an arrow from the body of an animal); MAKA- to shake the body free of an arrow (an animal) [MDL] gáni MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to remove a harpoon or spear from an animal where it is lodged; MAKA- to throw off a harpoon or spear; to shake free of a harpoon or spear (an animal [MDL] hihí' MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to enlarge a wound in order to remove a lance or harpoon [MDL] wa'íwa' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to enlarge the wound in an animal by moving about the knife or other weapon which first caused the wound [MDL]
The balátik refers to snares comprising one or a series of stakes or poles (dáwot) which are driven into ground, stringed and arched to resemble a type of crossbow. This is set up in a particular area frequented by game and triggered when a string is tripped by the movement of a passing animal (taróg), shooting the animal with an arrow (bukás). The mechanism may also be inadvertently triggered by wind, debris, or less than adequate attention when setting it up (gubkás). This type of snare appears commonly throughout the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia[44] although its exact form and purpose clearly varied. A detailed description and diagram of the type used in Zambales may be found in William Allan Reed's Negritos of Zambales.[45] Sánchez de la Rosa describes the form used in Samar as a bow, stick or bamboo, four or five palmos in length (that is the distance between the thumb and the little finger when the hand is fully extended - 80 to 100 centimetres), bent into a flexible arc with a strong cord drawn from one end to the other and loaded with an arrow or sharpened piece of bamboo which is released when triggered.[46]
dáwot stakes or posts used in erecting the snare or spring trap called balátik which resembles a crossbow; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to drive such posts or stakes into the ground in a particular location; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use posts or stakes for this purpose [MDL] taróg MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to spring a trap; to trip a snare; also MAKA-, MA- [MDL] bukás referring to game shot when caught in the spring trap called balátik; MA- or MAG- to shoot when tripped (the balátik); (PAG-)-ON to be shot by a balátik (game); (fig-) Kí'isay daw naági iní? Garó na ing áging bukás Who passed this way? It is as if something passed by which was shot by a balátik (Said when one comes across a trail of blood) [MDL] gubkás MA- or MAG- to discharge; to inadvertently fire (a bow); to accidentally spring (a snare, trap); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to misfire or discharge a bow; to inadvertently set off a snare or trap; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to misfire or discharge a bow at s/o or st/; to catch s/t (a snare when it accidentally springs); (fig-) Pagkagubkasán iyán úlay mo Go on, finish saying what you have in mind [MDL] In addition to the entry belantik in Kapampangan, there is a second entry, lantik 'to bend something outward'. This is clearly the root of the longer from, isolating the prefix ba- (or baN-) which, at least for Bikol, appears to carry the meaning of 'likeness' or 'similarity'.[49] Bikol, however, has no entry of the form látik with a relevant meaning which could serve as the root for balátik. The balátik, while it was widespread, was clearly just one type of bow-like snare with a trip mechanism set to shoot an arrow at targeted animals. There are a number of other named snares which have the same mechanism. Tagalog and Kapampangan share the bala'is (note the root word, la'is, discussed above) with Bergaño for Kapampangan specifying its use in the shooting of wild boar and deer. Noceda further includes for Tagalog the para'ig and pasulo, defined simply as bow-like traps for the capture of animals.[50] Cebuano and Hiligaynon also share a number of snares of this type: the guwa for targeting monkeys or rats, and the alugpit (also shared with Waray), igpit, and salipit for just rats. Cebuano has the additional bayubo, also used for rats (see Section 5(ii)).[51] Entries in both Waray and Cebuano also refer to the piece of wood or bamboo which is arched to form the main release mechanism of the bow, baoganan, with Sánchez de la Rosa for Waray including two clearly related alternates.[52] In addition to the snares that were set up with a mechanism similar to a bow and arrow there were commonly two other types of traps, those using a looped rope or lasso, and those involving a spike-lined pit into which the prey would fall. The bitík, not an entry in Lisboa, but used in modern Bikol, is a spring trap set up so that when a bird or animal enters an area set out with bait, it triggers a mechanism which causes a surrounding noose to lift, trapping and lifting the animal by the feet into the air where it hangs until removed (also see Section 5(vi)). The entry for Waray further explains the spring mechanism which is achieved by bending, almost double, a length of bamboo or pliant wood. Both Cebuano and Hiligaynon also list the bitík, used primarily for the catching of birds and chickens, but adaptable as well for the catching of larger game such as wild pigs.[53]
si'ód lasso, noose; loop; also: a snare consisting of a noose tied to the end of a stick or pole, used for catching pigs, snakes; MAG-, -ON to snare s/t; MAG-, -AN to lasso s/t; to hobble s/t [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to set a snare; MA- to become ensnared]
áwong MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place o/s in front of another, cutting out the light; to place o/s too near a trap, frightening off game, fish: Harí akó pagawongi Don't cut off my light or Get out from in front of me [MDL] balungbóng an enclosure placed around the sides of a snare, trap or fish corral to keep out unwanted birds, game or fish; also used as a temporary shelter for game until they can be properly confined, or as an enclosure to keep a child from falling; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to enclose a trap, animal or child in such a way; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t to form such an enclosure [MDL]
niráw MANG-, PANG--AN to check a fishing line, trap or snare to see if anything has been caught; MANG-, PANG--ON to check to see if anything has been caught on a line, in a snare; (fig-) Hírak saímo kapapanirawán ka na lámang ngápit, nagadán na How sorry we are for you; you'll only be looked in on when you are found dead (Implying: There is no one who cares about you) [MDL]
Rats and mice (kinó') would have presented a recurrent nuisance, both in the fields where they would have nibbled their way through grain crops, and in the house where they would have found other ways to be destructive. In addition to the term of general reference, Lisboa also includes terms for mice that were newborn (bayukbók, generalised in modern Bikol to refer to small, rice-eating mice), mice that were small (bagtó), and two references to other mouse-like animals, bugkón and bú'ot.
bayukbók mouse (typ- small, rice eating) [MDL: mice, rats (recently born)] bagtó mouse (typ- small) [MDL] bugkón animal (typ- similar in coloring and shape to a mouse, but larger) [MDL] bú'ot animal (typ- similar to a mouse, but larger) [MDL]
padlóng a mousetrap; MAG-, -AN to set a mousetrap; MA- to be trapped (a mouse or rat) [+MDL: mousetrap made from a length of bamboo; MA- or MAG- to set such a trap; MAPA- to be caught in such a trap (a mouse, rat)] atipíl mousetrap; MAG-, -ON to trap a mouse; MA- to be trapped in a mousetrap [MDL a mousetrap comprising a crossbow-like mechanism which releases an arrow, dart or other pointed instrument when triggered; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to trap a mouse in a mousetrap] dágom-dágom pointed instrument (such as a pick) placed in traps for catching mice, rats [MDL] átob spring trap, used for catching rats and mice, wild boar; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to set such a trap; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to set such a trap at a particular place; MA- to be trapped in such a trap (rats, wild boar) [MDL] kabkáb MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to smoke rats or mice from their holes or burrows (so that they can be killed upon emerging); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to smoke rat or mice burrows [MDL]
Traps could serve a purpose other than capture, and that was to warn a cultivator when an unwanted animal wandered into his fields. The Waray entry, kaya, is an interesting example of the extent someone would go to be apprised of an intrusion by a wild boar. What follows is a general translation of the dictionary entry.[56]
upón wild boar [D-PARTIDO] [+MDL: this term is less commonly used than báboy] sugsóg MA- describing s/t or s/o that continually causes harm or destruction in a particular area (as a wild boar entering rice fields, pirates raiding a town or robbers returning over and over again to a particular area): Masugsóg ka nang labí, álang-álang kang da'í masalagbát You continually cause terrible trouble; it's not right that you have not yet been given a taste of your own medicine (Meaning: You have not yet also been robbed or victimized); MA- or MAG- to continually or repeatedly cause harm or destruction in a particular place [MDL]
amumuklód wild boar, old and fierce, found hunting alone [MDL] húmok MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to gore s/o with its tusks (a wild boar); MA- to be gored by a wild boar (a person) [MDL] wáting MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to gore s/o (a boar); to hit s/o following behind you with s/t carried in the hand or on the shoulder; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to gore s/o with the tusks; to hit s/o with s/t; MAKA-, MA--AN to get gored; to get poked or hit from behind [MDL]
The use of pits to capture game was clearly common in the central Philippines for each of the languages makes reference to this practice with particularly numerous references for Waray.[59] For Bikol the bila'óng were dug to capture larger animals such as deer and wild boar. These were lined with sharpened sticks or spikes which impaled the prey which fell into them (duháng). Larger pits (atbóng) were dug to capture the wild buffalo. Where the intention was to capture these as a source of food[60] then these pits, too, would be lined with sharpened stakes.[61]
duháng a sharpened stick or spike used for trapping deer and wild boar; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to set out such stakes or spikes; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to trap deer or wild boar which fall into pits lined with such stakes or spikes; MAKA- to lure a deer or wild boar (such a trap); MA- to fall into such a trap, impale themselves and be injured (game); (fig-) Naduhángang iyán May you be hurt in such a trap (Said as an insult to men) [MDL] atbóng a large hole dug for the purpose of catching water buffalo; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to dig such a hole; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to catch water buffalo in such a hole; MA-, MA- -AN to fall into such a hole (water buffalo) [MDL] For the purpose of capturing wild buffalo alive, a strong enclosure was first constructed (álad). Then a line of men, each carrying palm leaves which were opened out to touch one to the other, moved out from each side of the enclosure's opening to a distance of just over one kilometre (tíkop). When they reached a heard of wild buffalo, they frightened them with shouts and the sound made by striking the palm leaves, driving them toward the entry of the enclosure. Once inside, the entry was then barred. Subsequently, each buffalo was tied and placed into a smaller enclosure so narrow that it could not turn around. Food was withheld for two weeks, weakening the animal and making it more compliant. At the end of this time, the individual wanting to train the animal for work in his fields would appear with a small amount of hay which the animal would accept. This would go on for twenty days, after which the animal would bond with the person feeding it, allowing it to be led by a rope attached to a ring placed through its nose. This bonding was to one individual only, with aggression shown to others who approached it.[62]
tíkop MAG- to meet (two ends, as of a circle); MAG-, PAG--ON to bring two ends together; MAG-, PAG--AN to enclose s/t by bringing two ends together [+MDL: a flank or group of people who gather together to form an open circle for purposes of battle or to catch s/t; MAG- to join together (both flanks); MAG-, PAG--ON to join one flank with another; MAG-, PAG--AN to go into this formation in a particular area or for a particular reason; MA-, -AN to join a second flank or group of people (the first flank or group)] The reference to the water buffalo in the Spanish dictionaries of the central Philippine languages, is, with the exception of Bikol, always to karabáw. While Tagalog records the identical terms as Bikol, that is anwang and damulag, and Kapampangan damulag alone, references throughout the Noceda dictionary are to karabáw with the occasional use of kalabáw, the term which eventually becomes the dominant Tagalog form.[63] Of the Visayan languages, only Waray has karabáw as a headword entry, although there are numerous references to the term in the Cebuano and Hiligaynon dictionaries.[64]
anwáng water buffalo [MDL] karabáw water buffalo (a foreign word; Bikol uses damúlag or anwáng) [MDL] [MALAY kerbau] samáyaw water buffalo, used in polite conversation in place of damúlag: Anó daw iyán dará mo? - Samáyaw What are you bringing? - A water buffalo; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to call s/o by the name of an animal, such as damúlag, kabáyo; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to call s/o's relation by the name of an animal; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use the name of a particular animal when referring to s/o [MDL]
The Philippine deer (usá), once plentiful across the county, is now extinct on a number of islands and severely threatened on others. The Philippine brown deer is the dominant species on Luzon and adjacent islands with the spotted deer found across the Visayas.[65] Lisboa includes specific terms referring to a female deer, or doe, líbay, and to a young deer, natí. A male deer, or stag, was identified by the number of points or branches it grew on its antlers, and this was the feature that distinguished male deer from the females which did not grow antlers. The age of a stag could also be determined by the points or branches on its antlers (manggí), and when hunting this, too, was the identifying feature when someone was asked what kind of deer had been caught (turó')
líbay doe, female deer [MDL] natí' deer (young) [MDL] manggí particle, placed before numbers to indicate how many points there are on a deer's antlers as well as its age; for each year of age a deer grows a new set of antlers with an additional number of points: manggí apát four points, two years old; manggí anóm six points, three years old; manggí waló eight points, four years old [MDL] turó' a deer which has only one pair of antlers without branches or points; also referring to such antlers; Gurá'nong usá an naba'ól nindó? - Turó' or Turó' pa saná an súngay What kind of deer did you catch? - One with just one pair of antlers without branches or points [MDL] Deer were plentiful, and as long as they were hunted for their meat and their skins served only a local industry, they would remain so. But that was not the case. Deerskins were highly sought after by the Japanese and Chinese, and such large numbers were exported that Antonio de Morga in his 1578 'Report on Conditions in the Philippines' indicated that if the export of skins was not stopped, the supply would be exhausted.[66] The numbers were truly staggering. An unsigned report from 1618 indicates that within an 85 kilometre radius in Pangasinan anywhere from 60,000 to 80,000 deer could be trapped and killed every year.[67]
The civet or civet cat (singgálong) is a cat-like mammal belonging to the family Viverridae. Both males and females produce a musk-like secretion from their anal glands (didís) which collects in a large pouch below the anus. This is the secretion used by the singgálong to mark its territory, and by humans, attracted by its strong scent (anghít), as an ingredient in perfumes.[68] The term didís is found in this identical form in the Visayan languages, with the cognate dirís used in Tagalog and Kapampangan. As for singgálong, only Hiligaynon has this identical form. Alcina refers to the civet cat as singarong (probably a mishearing of singgarong) a term which is not found in the Sánchez de la Rosa Waray dictionary where the reference is iro, generally considered a different species of cat referred to by Alcina as miru. The modern Cebuano dictionary by John Wolff also includes a reference to singgalong, but in the older Encarnacion dictionary, the only reference is to didisan, literally, 'that which has 'didis'. Both Tagalog and Kapampangan have musang, the term cognate with Malay.[69]
didís civet, the fluid excreted from the anal glands of a civet cat, used in the manufacture of perfumes [MDL] anghít the smell of civet; also used to refer to other strong and overpowering smells; MA- to have such a smell [MDL]
Civet cats could be trapped in nets (see Section 6), a technique described by Morga as used in Mindanao,[76] but more commonly they were trapped in a spring-loaded noose (see Section 5(i)). This is the technique described by Alcina for Samar, who also goes on to describe how the civet was removed before the cat was released.[77] To form the trap, a cord with a noose at its end is tied to a long stick. One end of the stick is planted securely in the ground and the other end is pulled forward, creating tension. It is then secured in this position. A piece of pork or fish is placed near the noose to serve as bait, and pegs are placed along the edges of the trap to direct the cat to this area. When the cat nears the bait, it trips the restraint. The stick then springs upright pulling the cord with it, the noose catching the cat by the feet or neck, and pulling it upward where it hangs suspended. After the cat is removed from the trap, it is placed in a cage if the intention is to keep it, or in a rattan basket if it is to be milked of its civet and released. To do this, just the head of the cat is placed in the rattan basket with the two back legs remaining outside. If this technique does not work, then two pieces of crossed wood are driven into the ground. The head of the cat is then placed between the cross and the ground. This keeps it from biting. If there are two people, one person holds the cats legs apart exposing the cavity where the civet has collected. The civet is then gently removed. If there is only one person, then he uses his feet, holding each of the cat's legs between his toes while his uses his hands to remove the civet.
The crocodile in the Philippines (bu'áya), once widespread and feared[[78] has in modern times become severely endangered with populations eliminated throughout much of the Visayas and southern Luzon due to the destruction of their habitat and use of dynamite when fishing.[79] At the turn of the sixteenth century, however, crocodiles were plentiful and precautions were taken either to avoid them, making sure they were not present when checking the catch in fish traps (sansán), frightening them away from boats by striking them with an oar (kampóg), or trapping them when they interfered with the rhythm of everyday life.
sansán MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to probe a fish corral with a pole to make sure there are no crocodiles [MDL] kampóg MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to frighten away crocodiles by hitting them with the oar of a boat; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use an oar for this purpose [MDL]
palátaw a hobble, a restraint attached to the feet with a chain to keep fugitives from absconding; a length of bamboo attached to a hook for catching crocodiles, used to locate the crocodile after it has taken the bait; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to hobble or shackle a fugitive in this way; to attach a length of bamboo to a crocodile hook; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use s/t as a hobble; to use a piece of bamboo for attaching a crocodile hook [MDL] There was also another method used in Samar to trap both wild boar (see Section 5(iii)) and crocodiles. This is described in some detail by Alcina, and also referred to by Sánchez de la Rosa in the dictionary entry andog. This particular trap was formed by creating a narrow passage of stakes which led to an area topped by a heavy log, made even heavier when weighted down with stones. When the crocodile had worked its way to the covered area, it triped a small stick which caused the log and stones above to crash down, thereby trapping, if not, killing it.[81]
Antonio de Morga has a small section in his Sucesos where he describes the wide variety of birds (gamgám) found in the Philippines, birds of striking plumage found on both dry land and lakes, and those quail-like birds (púgo') suitable for eating.[82] Even more detail is provided over four chapters by Ignacio Alcina describing the birds of Samar, parts of which will be touched on in more detail below.[83] Birds were also included among the vast array of items available for trade and barter.[84] Judging by the amount and diversity of traps used in their capture, birds were either a commodity prized for their beauty, utility, monetary or culinary value, or dreaded for their detrimental effect on fruit or grain crops (dignós). Noceda for Tagalog includes the specific entry, panaklit, which is a type of net woven from rattan, used for the capture and killing of grain-eating birds,[85] and in Bikol the bakuróng was the specific trap set out for such birds. This is a complex entry built on the root kuróng 'cage' (see the following paragraph) and the prefix baN- generally showing 'likeness' or 'similarity' (see Section 5(i)). Where the intent was not to kill or capture, birds could be scared off by targeting them with the sharply-pointed burrs of particular trees (daklág, also see Chapter 6, 'Rice,' Section 3 (iv)).
púgo' mountain or forest quail; MANG- or MANGGA- to hunt for such quail [+MDL] dignós maya (typ- small bird, commonly found in rice fields); dignós sa kósta sparrow (typ- bird; lit: dignós of the coast); syn- amamanglón, máyang kósta [+MDL] bakuróng snare (typ- small, used to catch birds such as the maya or dignós); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to set such a snare; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to catch a bird in such a snare; MA- to be trapped in such a snare (a bird); -AN: binakuróngan a bird trapped in this way [MDL] daklág MAG-, I- to cast, hurl or throw s/t; MAG-, -ON to cast, hurl or throw s/t at s/t else [MDL: burr (typ- with many points, obtained from the branch of particular trees, used for throwing at birds); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to throw a stone or stick; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to throw a stone or stick at s/t]
lído' MA- or MAG- to fly back and forth, going nowhere (a bird held by the beak by a child when playing); (fig-) Lído'-lído' na lámang si kuyán It appears as if that person is flying back and forth, going nowhere (Said when one cannot move) [MDL] pulsát MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to escape (an animal or bird from a cage or other area where it is kept) [MDL]
kisíw snare, spring trap (typ- used for catching birds); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to set such a snare or trap; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to catch a bird with such a snare; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to set an area with such snares; MA- to fall into such a snare or trap (a bird) [MDL] tanáw PA- snare (typ- for birds, baited with fruit); MAPA- or MAGPA- to set such a trap; MAPA-, PA--ON or MAGPA-, PAG--ON to trap a bird in such a snare; MAPA- to be snared, trapped (a bird); PA--AN: pinatanáwan a bird trapped in this way [MDL]
silábong bird trap (typ- consisting of a noose tied at the end of a piece of bamboo); MAG-, -ON to trap a bird with a silábong; MAG-, -AN to set this trap at a particular place [+MDL: silabóng MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to catch birds with such a noose; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use such a noose for catching birds] tiwtíw MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to reach out with a hook attached to the end of a bamboo pole to try to hook a fish; to reach out with a noose attached to the end of a bamboo pole to lasso a chicken or bird; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to catch a fish, chicken or bird in this way [MDL] kurukód a noose attached at the end of a long bamboo pole, used for catching birds in trees; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to catch birds in this manner [MDL] dukót PA- snare, trap or noose (typ- placed in palm trees, used to catch birds which come to drink the sap collecting for tubá'); MAPA-, PA--ON or MAGPA-, PAGPA--ON to catch a bird with such a snare; MAPA-, PA--AN or MAGPA-, PAGPA--AN to set such a snare in palm trees [MDL] purúpot MAG-, -ON to wind or coil s/t up; MAG-, -AN to wind or coil s/t around; -AN a coil [MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to be completely entangled in a snare or noose (a bird in a trap); (fig-) Nagpurúpot na sa pandóg si kuyán That person is firmly locked in the stocks]
tiná'-tiná' plant (typ- possessing leaves from which a black dye may be obtained, used to dye the ropes used in bird snares or traps) [MDL] Alcina describes what was probably a similar situation in Samar pertaining the trapping of wild roosters which were caught for food. There the hunters found a place in the fields frequented by these fowl. They marked out a square with four pegs and in the centre they placed a tame cock which was tethered so that it remained in one place. This was the katian or decoy. On four sides of the decoy, the hunters placed their snares. The wild roosters, responding to the crowing of the decoy, entered the enclosure to attack it, thereby triggering one of the traps and ensnaring itself in one of the nooses. The hunter then removed the captured rooster and placed it in a safe place, returning to wait for the next rooster to appear. If the area for the enclosure was well chosen, many roosters would be caught at a single outing.[90]
katí' MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to set out a bird as a decoy; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to trap birds with such a decoy; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to set decoy birds in a particular area; -AN a decoy (bird); (fig-) nagkakati'án úlay speech which entices, cajoles [MDL]
Each of the central Philippine languages has numerous terms relating to the capture of birds and animals with a variety of traps and snares. The terms which have not been referenced in the above discussion are listed in the endnote here for those interested in investigating further.[93]
In addition to snares and traps, nets also had a central place in the hunting of birds and animals. These were of various types depending on the game that was being pursued. A number of these served more than one function, such as the hikót used for catching fish as well as game. While this term is also found in Tagalog and the Visayan languages, its reference there is to the construction of such nets, and not to the finished product.[94] The batóng was a wide mesh nets used for catching larger animals such as wild boar and deer. This was a commonly used net, with cognate terms found in each of the central Philippine languages.[95]
batóng net (typ- with a wide mesh, used for catching animals such as wild boar and deer); MA- or MAG- to go hunting with such a net; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to catch game with a batóng; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to set a batóng in a particular area; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a batóng for hunting; PARA- a hunter using such nets [MDL]
pirípit MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to catch flies in abaca fiber; to catch bats in the ribs of a fan or those of an opened umbrella [MDL] The weaving of nets involved similar instrruments to the weaving of cloth (see Chapter 11, 'Fibre, Cloth and Clothing,' Section 3). All of the central Philippine languages mention use of the shuttle (siko'án), a borrowing of the Hokkien so5-á5 (also see Chapter 19, 'Fishing,' Section 9). A gauge or sizing card was used to measure the mesh to make sure that each square was the same size. This was generally a flat, rectangular piece of bamboo, in Bikol, arangtáng. Reference to this gauge is also found in the other central Philippine languages which share cognate terms different from the Bikol.[97]
siko'án shuttle of a loom; also used in weaving nets; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to wrap thread around a shuttle; (fig-) Garó nagsisiko'án si kuyán kon minakakán That person is like a shuttle moving back and forth when eating (Said when one eats quickly) [MDL]
tugbán a net which has the addition of small triangular pieces of cloth; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to attach such pieces of cloth; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to attach such pieces of cloth to a net [MDL]
putótan tree (typ- possessing a bark which produces a dye used in the dying of nets; Bruguiera gymnorhiza, the 'Black mangrove') [+MDL] bu'óng vine (typ- ivy-like, the outer covering of which is used for dying nets); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to dye nets with the outside of such a vine [MDL]
gapí' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to beat down or flatten grass, usually to prepare an area for setting up nets used in hunting; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to flatten grass in a particular area [MDL] takták MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to spread out nets for hunting; to set out corrals for catching fish; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to spread such nets or set out corrals over a particular area; to catch s/t with such nets or corrals [MDL] tagdóy stakes, pegs or poles which are used to hold the ends of nets during a hunt; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to stake out a net [MDL] kálong MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to attach other nets to a main net which has been set in a hunt so that animals are directed into it; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to extend a main net by attaching other nets to it [MDL] kuláng MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to set nets in hunting which do not meet end to end (an incorrect arrangement which allows game to escape); MAKA- to escape from such poorly placed nets (game) [MDL]
kurá MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to shout at game, driving it into a net set out for the hunt; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to shout out s/t in order to drive game [MDL] puró edge, rim; tip; end, (as of a road); NASA at the edge, end; MAGHING-, HING--ON to cut off the end; MAGHING, HING--AN to cut the end off s/t [+MDL: SA at the tip, end; (PAG-) -AN to come to a point; → MAKA- to run along the edge of a net without triggering it (animals); MAHING-, HING--ON or MAGHING-, PAGHING- -ON to cut off the end; MAHING-, HING--AN or MAGHING-, PAGHING--AN to cut the end off s/t] bálda MAG-, -ON to pierce or break through s/t; usually, MAKA- to break through (as a fist punched through a wall) [MDL: baldá (a ripped net); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to break through a net (game, fish); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to break through s/o's net; MAKA- to break through a net and escape (game, fish); (fig-) Da'í na akóng binabaldahán kainíng pagkará'ot ko I won't be able to escape from my troubles (Implying: It is as if I am caught in a net)]
Hunting parties set out to capture wild game (ba'ól) which included wild buffalo, wild boar, deer and civet cats. Crocodiles were also trapped and removed when they posed a danger (see Section 5).
mu'nóng MAG-, PAG--AN to eat alone; to do s/t without companions; MAKA-, MA--AN to catch prey when alone (a hunter); to have to do s/t alone or take sole responsibility for s/t: Namumu'ongán ko iníng dakól na gíbo All of this work is now my responsibility alone [MDL] ágom MA-, -AN to join another who goes out to hunt or catch fish, sharing nets, provisions and the resultant catch; MA-, I- to share nets jointly on such an occasion; MAG- to join together in a hunt or share nets when fishing; MAG-, PAG- -ON to take along shared provisions when hunting or fishing with s/o; MAG-, PAG--AN to hunt or fish together at a particular place; MAKA- to end up joining s/o on a hunt or when fishing; MAGKA- to end up hunting or fishing together [MDL] ábay MANG-, PANG--AN to accompany s/o on a hunt along with one's hunting dogs; MANG-, IPANG- to take one's hunting dogs along on a hunt in the company of others also hunting with dogs; MANG-, PANG--ON to hunt for game in this way [MDL]
líhos referring to marks or signs indicating the existence of a burrow, den or lair; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to go in search of the burrow, den or lair of an animal [MDL] salisí MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to observe animals, birds at a location where they gather in order to capture or kill them; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to go a particular place in order to observe animals, birds [MDL] ságap MAG-, -AN to gather information or facts by listening; to induce s/t [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to devise ploys, strategies or tactics for catching s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to catch s/t in this way; MAKA-, MA--AN to catch s/t by luck or chance; Kasasagápan tang maku'á an tibá'ad nang úlay kon maguurúlay kitá giráray We might be able to learn some words if we always converse with people]
lapó' a dislocation or sprain; dislocated, sprained; MAG-, -ON to deliberately cause a dislocation or sprain; MAKA-, MA- to get a sprain; to dislocate a joint [+MDL: a broken bone; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to break the bones of an animal] ukót a god of hunting who guides hunters to their prey by whistling [BIK MYT] a household spirit which communicates by whistling; -AN one who has the aid of such a spirit [MDL]
batí' MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to be on the alert for s/t; to lie in wait for s/t (as game in order to capture it) [MDL] aták MA- or MAG- to stand at intervals, as if attempting to catch s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to stand in this way across a particular area; to search for s/t in this way [MDL] sarimbáy MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to glide or circle in flight over potential prey (birds of prey); to encircle s/t you want to catch to see how best to do this safely; to wander around town looking for a place to eat or drink, so that you will be seen and invited in [MDL]
lásay MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to follow or run after an animal in order to catch or kill it; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to follow an animal in this way through a particular area [MDL] ládag MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to catch s/t by running after it until it tires; to follow after an animal, fish or bird until it tires and one is able to catch it [MDL] balagát MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to run quickly toward s/t so as to catch it (as an animal to be grabbed by its front legs), or wound it, or throw s/t at it (as a bird trying to fly away) [MDL] ábong MA-, -AN to catch or aid s/o in catching an animal or bird by blocking its way or grasping it from the front; MAG-, PAG--AN to aid one another in catching an animal or bird in such a way (two people or many people helping each other) [MDL]
bungábong MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place o/s upwind from game, allowing one's scent to be detected; MAKA-, MA--AN to reach game (a particular scent): Nabungabóngan na si ba'ól The wild game has caught the scent [MDL] sarungát MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to raise the head and flare the nostrils when catching the scent of s/t (a dog, another animal); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to catch the scent of s/t, reacting in this way; (fig-) Siminarungát na doy si kuyán That person has his nose up in the air (Meaning: That person is arrogant) [MDL] sugbó MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to run to a body of water for protection (such as deer when chased by dogs); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to run to a body of water for a particular reason ... [MDL]
Filipinos at the turn of the sixteenth century hunted with dogs. Áyam is the term used in Bikol and the Visayan languages, while in Tagalog it refers to a dog that is not used in hunting. The general term for 'dog' in Tagalog and Kapampangan is aso.[110] Ído' meant 'puppy' in old Bikol, a term shared with Waray and Hiligaynon, although this has come to mean simply 'dog' in the modern language, a term it now shares with Cebuano.[111] Additionally, there were also specific Bikol terms which referred to dogs which were trained to hunt. These were langgán and gánib, this last term shared with Tagalog.[112]
ído' dog, canine [MDL: idó' puppy; MAG-, IPAG- to give birth to a litter of puppies] langgán a hunting dog; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to train a dog to hunt [MDL] ganíb alert, watchful; having sharp senses; on the prowl (animals) [MDL: a hunting dog; MA- or MAG- to develop into a hunting dog; (PAG-)-AN to be the owner of a hunting dog; (fig-) Si ganíb na táwo si kuyán sa panha'bón That person is a great thief; Si ganíb na táwo si kuyán sa pakibabáyi That fellow is a great womanizer]
burók dog (typ- with small, white and yellowish markings) [MDL] dayáng-dayáng dog (typ- with colorful spots or markings) [MDL]
lupíng floppy-eared (dogs); syn- kupíng [+MDL]
dalugo'án teeth (typ- of a dog, stained with a blood-red color); dogs with such teeth are said to be great hunters [MDL]
Dogs were used on most of the hunts that were undertaken, except when they involved areas of dense, tall grass (rantíg). While the dogs were probably still able to track a scent, passage for the animals must have proven just too difficult.
amúlaw MAG-, -ON to disturb s/o; MANG- to be a disturbance [MDL: the howling of dogs in pursuit of game; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to howl while in pursuit of game (dogs); MAPA- to be on the scent or trail of game (dogs)] ibát MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to flush out game on a hunt (dogs) [MDL] tukób MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to catch live prey or game (a dog on a hunt, a cat); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to catch live game for s/o (a dog) [MDL]
híyan sig, attack; said to a dog to get it to attack, usually repeated a number of times ... [MDL]
Hunting and trapping formed an integral part of the lives of Filipinos long before the arrival of the Spanish. Animals were hunted, not only for their meat, but for any number of other reasons. Where they posed a danger, crocodiles were removed so fish traps could be safely accessed and the rivers made secure for bathing. Where wild boar continually raided cultivated fields destroying crops, they were killed, and where birds daily descended on the ripening rice, their numbers, had to be restricted. Large numbers of rats and mice, nibbling on grain in the fields or in granaries, also had to be reduced to ensure the security of food supplies. But these weren't the sole reasons for setting out traps and nets. Birds were not only trapped because they were a nuisance, but also because their caged presence was deemed pleasant to a household or community. Civet cats were captured only to be released once their valuable musk-like secretions, used to dress the hair and freshen the clothes, were collected, and wild buffalo were caught not only to be slaughtered, but to be tamed and trained for the cultivation of fields. Commerce also played a part. Civet cats were, from early times, caught and caged for export to China. By the mid-seventeenth century their musk-like secretions were collected and shipped off to Spain via Mexico. Deer skins were in great demand in both China and Japan leading to extraordinary numbers of deer being captured and killed, threatening their very existence. A large variety of traps and snares were used in the capture of birds and animals. There were those resembling crossbows fixed in position which would shoot darts or arrows of sharpened bamboo or iron into passing game, and others with a spring-like mechanism that would catch game in a baited noose, lifting them up to hang. And there were also the pits dug into the ground, lined with sharpened stakes, spikes or spears, waiting for passing wild buffalo, boar or deer. Nets were constructed using the implements of weaving, taking care to create mesh of even squares, then dying the cordage black to avoid detection. These were set out in clearings to catch flying foxes as well as many of the same birds and animals caught by traps and snares. The matchlock gun had some limited distribution in the Philippines at the turn of the sixteenth century, and where this was used in hunting, it was used against larger game such as wild buffalo. Far more common were the weapons that could be manufactured locally: darts and blowguns, bows and arrows, and spears and lances. Handles could be made from local wood and spearheads and arrowheads from sharpened bamboo or iron. Heads containing barbs of varying numbers and sizes were also available, ensuring the weapon stayed in place once it had reached it target. Hunters went out alone or with others, taking their hunting dogs with them. These were dogs that were specially chosen a week after birth by examining their teats. Those that were chosen received special care and affection from that moment to the end of their lives. They were held and petted, and allowed to sleep alongside their masters, sharing the same blanket. The catch, whether captured by traps or snares, by nets, or by spears or arrows, was brought back to town by the hunters and shared. This was the expectation. Sharing ensured that the hunters, as well as those incapable of hunting, had something to eat, and guaranteed that those who had grown too old or feeble to hunt in the future, would always have some sustenance. ENDNOTES
[1] 'Arquebus,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 12 March 2020); 'Matchlock,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 12 March 2020); 'Bedil,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 12 March 2020.
[2] Antonio Sánchez de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, 3rd edition, aumentado por Antonio Valeriano, Manila: Santos y Bermal, 1914, see badil; Juan Feliz de la Encarnacion, Diccionario español - bisaya, Manila: Imprenta de los amigos del pais, á cargo de M. Sanchez, 1852, see badil; Juan José Noceda and Pedro de Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, 1754, Manila: Imprenta de Ramirez y Giraudier, reimpreso 1860, see baril; Alonso de Mentrida, Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya de la Isla de Panay, Manila: La Imprenta de D. Manuel y de Felix Dayot, 1841, see baril; Diego Bergaño, Vocabulario de la lengua Pampanga, en romance, 1732, Manila: Imprenta de Ramirez y Giraudier, Reimpreso 1860, see baril. [3] John Crawfurd, A Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language, 2 vols., London: Smith, Elder and Company, 1852, see badil; William Marsden, A Dictionary of the Malayan language, London: Cox and Baylis, 1812, see bedil; R. O. Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, Singapore: Kelly & Walsh Ltd, n.d., see baril. [4] Tamil Dictionary, see veṭi. [5] H. Kern, 'Oorsprong van het Maleische Woord Bedil', Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia, Volume 54: Issue 1, 1902, pp. 311-312. [6] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see malilang, obat (in the index only); de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see malilang. [7] Crawfurd, A Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language, see ubat, badil; Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see ubat bedil. [8] 'Gunpowder,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 15 April 2020). [9] Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, see saindhava. [10] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sangyaua. [11] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pong-lo; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see ponglo; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see ponglo; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see ponglo. [12] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pisi; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see anugut. [13] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see pisi; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pisi; Bergaño, Pampanga, see pisi. [14] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see coracora, pasang; Bergaño, Pampanga, see curacura. [15] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see salabat; Hernando de los Rios Coronel, 'Memorial, y relacion para su magestad,' Madrid, 1621, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 19, pp. 183-288, p. 280-281. [16] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sumpit; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see siimpit, sungpit; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see songpit; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sumpit; Bergaño, Pampanga, see sumpit. [17] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gapasan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see gapasan. [18] Diego de Bobadilla, S. J., 'Relation of the Filipinas Islands', 1640, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 29, pp. 277-312, p. 291. [19] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sinambong. [20] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see calo-ay, calaoay, hagod. [21] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bosog; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bosog; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bosog; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bosog; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bayi. [22] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pana; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see pana; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pana; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see pana; Bergaño, Pampanga, see pana. [23] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see palaso. [24] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sabac; Bergaño, Pampanga, see singit. [25] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bongol; Bergaño, Pampanga, see sulpung; 'Arrowhead,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 20 April 2020). [26] Bergaño, Pampanga, see betu, dit-ta, lasac, tayang; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see solpong. [27] 'Alstonia scholaris - Dita Tree,' Ethnology.com (accessed 29 April 2020). [28] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see dita, abo ab; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bota, dita; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see dita. [29] 'Alstonia scholaris,' Useful Tropical Plants (accessed 5 May 2020); 'Dita,' Stuartxchange (accessed 5 May 2020; E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines: Their Preparation and Uses, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 14, Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1916, pp. 202-204. [30] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see talanga; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see talangan. [31] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see binit, bolot, dumpil, giay, loyong, posor, salait, sima'; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see odyong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bingat, bocas, holac, olas, talabas; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see oryun; Bergaño, Pampanga, see binit, litid, pulad. [32] Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la lengua española, 23.ª ed., versión 23.3, en línea, see arpón. [33] Francisco Colin, S.J., 'Native Races and their Customs,' Madrid, 1663, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, pp. 37-98, p. 87. [34] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see calauit; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see calauit; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see calao-it. [35] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sagor; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bugauin; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bahangan, lagoay. [36] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see tombac; Bergaño, Pampanga, see tumbac. [37] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gayang, sibat, sinampacan, suligui, taliposo / tilaposo; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bancao, hagos, ipamono, sugob; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bancao, hagos, isi, lamay, sinampacan, sombiling, songgil; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bangcao, bolhog / bolog; Bergaño, Pampanga, see tumbac. [38] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pamoga, panamit, pinagualohan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see binalo; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see lomanab, sinayac. [39] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see panganuang, salait; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see pangayam; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bodyac, pinalincod, simot, salait; Bergaño, Pampanga, see saláit, sima, tumbac. [40] Bergaño, Pampanga, see pulu, lang-gangan; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see tagdan, tininggaan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see dugoc, duldug, ilhi; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see mangao, olongan, pooa. [41] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see pitara, tunao, uahing. [42] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see rimot, piquit; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see alimot, balicascs, pitala, limot. [43] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see balongbalong, halotactac; Bergaño, Pampanga, see alutactac; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see isorolob. [44] Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, see belantek; Kamus Dewan, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1994, see belantik; Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Tim Penyusun Kamus, Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1990, see belantik. [45] William Allan Reed, Negritos of Zambales, Department of the Interior, Ethnological Survey Publications, Vol. ii, Part i, Manila, Bureau of Public Printing, 1904, pp 45-46. [46] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see balatic. [47] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see balatic; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see balatic, daitol, lais, dangat; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see balatic, paquil, olub, sang-at. [48] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see lais; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see lais. [49] Malcolm W. Mintz, 'The Fossilized Affixes of Bikol,' Currents in Pacific Linguistics: Papers on Austronesian Languages and Ethnolinguistics in Honor of George W. Grace, ed. Robert Blust, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics C-117, 1991, p. 265-291, pp. 274-276. [50] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see balais, paraig, pasolo; Bergaño, Pampanga, see balais. [51] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gaoa, alogpit, ygpit, salipit; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see gaua, alugpit, igpit, salipit; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see alugpit. [52] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see baoganan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see baoganan, baraogan, bauog. [53] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bitic; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bitic. [54] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see hiyud; Bergaño, Pampanga, see cab-bius. [55] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pain; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see paon; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see paon; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see paon; Bergaño, Pampanga, see apan. [56] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see caya. [57] Pedro Chirino, 'Relacion de las Islas Filipinas (concluded),' Roma, 1604, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 13, pp. 27-220, p. 89. [58] Mintz, 'The Fossilized Affixes of Bikol,' pp. 268-269. [59] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see loong; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see auang, bilaho, cadang cadang, hagnus, liong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gahong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bauug; [60] Chirino, 'Relacion de las Islas Filipinas,' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 12, p. 188; Ignacio Francisco Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, 1668, vol. 1 and vol. 2, translated, edited and annotated by Cantius J. Kobak and Lucio Gutiérrez, Manila: UST Publishing House, 2002, vol 2, Chapter 2, p. 37. [61] Bergaño, Pampanga, see sulu. [62] Hernando de los Rios Coronel, 'Memorial, y relacion para su magestad', in Blair and Robertson, vol. 19, p. 281. [63] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see anuang, damolag; Bergaño, Pampanga, see damulag. [64] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see carabao. [65] 'Philippine Deer,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 25 June 2020); 'Visayan Spotted Deer,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 25 June 2020). [66] Antonio de Morga, 'Report on Conditions in the Philippines,' June, 1578, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 10, pp. 75-102, p. 84. [67] 'Description of the Philippine Islands,' Unsigned report, Manila, 1618, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 18, pp 93-106, p.98-99. [68] 'Civet,' Britannica.com (accessed 25 June 20); de Bobadilla, 'Relation of the Filipinas Islands,' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 29, p. 302. [69] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see diris, musang; Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapter 5, p. 89; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see didis, iro; John U. Wolff,A Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan, Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1971, see singgalung; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see didis, singgalong; Bergaño, Pampanga, see diris, musang. [70] Chirino, 'Relacion de las Islas Filipinas,' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 12, p. 212. [71] Juan de Plasencia, O.S.F., 'Customs of the Tagalogs,' Manila, October 21, 1589, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 7, pp. 73-98, p. 190. [72] Juan Grau y Monfalcon, 'Informator y memorial addressed to the king,' Madrid, 1637, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 27, pp. 55-214, p. 198. [73] de Morga, 'Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (concluded)', in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, pp. 184, 236. [74] de Morga, 'Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (concluded),' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, p. 105. [75] Hernando de los Rios Coronel, 'Memorial, y relacion para su magestad,' in Blair and Robertson, vol 19, p. 282; de Bobadilla, 'Relation of the Filipinas Islands,' in Blair and Robertson, vol 29, p. 302. [76] de Morga, 'Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (concluded),' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, p. 105. [77] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapter 5, p. 89-91. [78] de Morga, 'Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (concluded),' in Blair & Roberton, vol. 16, p. 93. [79] 'Philippine Crocodile,' Wikipedia, English, n.d. (accessed 5 July 2020). [80] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapter 7, pp. 135-137. [81] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapter 7, p. 135; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see andug. [82] de Morga, 'Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (concluded),' in Blair & Robertson, vol. 16, p. 91. [83] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapters 23-26, pp. 460-540. [84] Juan Francisco de San Antonio, O.S.F., 'The native peoples and their customs' (from his Cronicas),' Manila, 1738, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, pp. 296-373, p. 360. [85] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see panaclit. [86] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see colong; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see corongan, also see panggal, tangcal; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see colongan, also see tangcal; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see colong, aso see tangcal; Bergaño, Pampanga, see culung. [87] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see polot, also see lag-i; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see polot. [88] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see tina; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see tina; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see tina; Bergaño, Pampanga, see tina. [89] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see cati; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see cati; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see cati; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see cati; Bergaño, Pampanga, see cati, also see calubcub. [90] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapter 23, p. 477. [91] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see libir, palipao, sanlong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see salapid. [92] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapter 25, pp. 511-513. [93] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bantay, bauigan, bisanlong, bitag, colocob, latay, mononoctoc, pana, panac, panat, panyapoc, palacao;, pansipit, sagar, silo, taguin talabing; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see alicopcop, atub, balolang, balaong, corag, cotay, gahit, gaua / cagauahan, laang, langub, lit-ag, loyloy, lugpit, padlong, palyang, pasabduc, patuctoc, pilpig, pulao, sabdoc / sapdoc / sapdu, saliang, salicobcob, siay, sinipong sin pisi, suay; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see balobo, binta, bitoca, galao, hagad, ipit / ypit, laang, labay, lit-ag, logpit, soay, sagpinit, salicobcob, taclob, tocao, talocso; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see amihas, balang, binta, laang, langub, lit-ag, salicubcub, siay, suay; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bagcus, banglat, banlat, bicus, bitag, lipao, partai, saguilut, sanlong, silo, umang. [94] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see hicquit; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see hocot; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see hocot; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see hucut. [95] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bating; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see batong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see batong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see batung; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bating. [96] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see baling; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see calatao, labayan. [97] English - Hokkien Dictionary; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sinicquan, agpang; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see adpang, sicohan; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see adpang, sicohan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see agpang, sicoan; Bergaño, Pampanga, see agpang, sic-cuan. [98] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see hayoma; Bergaño, Pampanga, see ayuma. [99] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see puna; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pona; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see pona. [100] 'Bruguiera gymnorhiza,' Useful Tropical Plants (accessed 8 August 2020); E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines: Their Preparation and Uses, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 14, Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1916, p. 180. [101] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see locod. [102] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see catcat, tugday; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see calang, taroctoc; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see cayáoan, lohaloha; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see cayauan; Bergaño, Pampanga, see catcat. [103] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gotos, sobli; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bolho, lingcapas, podlos, soab, socab; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see losot. [104] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pahimis, sinaya. [105] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bugtong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bogtong; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bugtong. [106] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapter 4, p. 75. [107] Merito Espinas, 'The supernatural world of the ancient Bikols,' in Unitas, vol. 41, no. 2, 1968, pp. 181-191. [108] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sumpa; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sumpa; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sompa; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sumpa; Bergaño, Pampanga, see sumpa. [109] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see onog, salang; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see anob, banua, gura, sab-o, sula, tigdakop; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see balang, cagol, habong, hocas, lan-o, libo; sab-o, socob; Bergaño, Pampanga, see alas, lucluc, nio. [110] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see ayam, aso; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see ayam; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see ayam; Bergaño, Pampanga, see aso. [111] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see ido; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see iro; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see ido. [112] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see ganib. [113] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapter 4, p. 73-77. [114] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see soso. [115] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sicomol. [116] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see halay, basbas; Bergaño, Pampanga, see anad. [117] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bangar, higar, langalanga. [118] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see balata. [119] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People,' vol. 2, Chapter 4, p. 75. [120] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see pangayam. [121] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sibol. [122] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see alingar. [123] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see cagud. [124] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see banagan, hacao, hasohaso, pangloy, tiac, tongar; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see osot; de la Encarnacion, see bogno, cagat, sogmac, tacoy; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see osoy, sica. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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