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OVERVIEW A brief introduction to passengers and crew is presented in Section1 before moving on to Section 2 which discusses in more detail the various boats found in the Philippines at the turn of the sixteenth century. Examined first are the smaller boats carved from the trunk of a single tree, followed by the larger plank-built boats. Included in the discussion is the barángay, the traditional boat which brought the original settlers to the Philippines and gave its name to communities which were established by the crew and passengers when they reached land. Section 3 looks at the construction of both dugout and plank-built boats, the timber for the hull, ribs and keel, and the materials used in forming the seals. Section 4 presents the faults and fixes when boats were not well finished, removing boards with knots, replacing those that didn't fit well together, and reworking leaking seals. The outriggers are examined in Section 5, what they are made from, how they are attached to the boat, and how many can be used to accommodate a larger number of rowers. In Section 6 is the detail of the kayáng, the woven awning which covers most the boat to protect the passengers, crew and cargo from the sun and rain. Also mentioned in this section are the seats and seating arrangements on the boat. Section 7 is a brief examination of the sheds where boats were kept when not in use. Sails and rigging is the basis of Section 8. Included here is a detailed discussion of the types of sails, and the masts, yards, and various ropes for the rigging. The raising, lowering and storage of the sails is also included. Section 9 looks at all aspects of rowing, the oars and how they are used, the rowers and their positions on the boat, the styles of rowing, the sounds made when the oars strike the water, the poles used to keep boats from running aground in shallow water and the songs sung to synchronise the strokes of the rowers. Navigation was done primarily by sight with boats following along the coastlines, or moving from one island to another if heading out on longer distance runs. This and the types of channels which were dug to keep boats moving in the shallows is the subject of Section 10. Section 11 looks at how boats travel together, and how they fare in storms with rough seas and strong winds. Boats pulling into port or beaching on the shore is part of Section 12. Also discussed is the dropping of the anchor when boats had reached their destination, and the collection of fees for boats to dock in particular ports and the levies imposed to engage in trade. Section 13 looks at damage and loss, where boats receive minor damage from adverse weather conditions, or seveve damage where they have to be towed into port, or become wrecked with the loss of all on board. Running aground is the subject of Section 14, a particular problem when captains, looking for the shortest route to their destination, traverse shallow areas with rocks and fringing reefs. Cargo, its loading and unloading and position on the boat, is the topic of Section 15 and in Section 16 is the examination of combat, the forays into neighbouring towns to plunder for wealth and the capture of individuals to be enslaved for needed labour.
The general term for travel by boat in Bikol is sakáy. Various affix possibilities also expand the nautical meaning to instances of navigation as well as embarkation as a passenger on the boat of another. Modern Bikol adds the locative suffix -AN to give the exact meaning of 'boat', although this is not indicated as a possibility by Lisboa. A change to penultimate stress, sákay, gives the meaning of 'rowers', (see Section (9(ii)) and with the addition of the prefix KA-, 'passengers'. A similar pattern is found throughout the central Philippines languages with the general expansion of meaning to include transport by horses or carts found in Cebuano and Kapampangan.[1]
rusóg MA- or MAG- to stow away; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to stow away on a particular boat (such as those who try to flee to Spain); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to stow away at the expense of a particular boat owner [MDL] tapón MAG-, PAG--ON to join together (the crews of two boats, the crew of neither sufficient to man two separate boats; two towns of small populations); MA-, I- to join the smaller of crews or towns with the larger; MA-, -AN to join the larger crew or town with the smaller; to reinforce the manpower of one boat with the crew of another [MDL] hangóg a fear of falling from a high place or a fear of similar dangers, such as falling overboard and drowning; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to frighten s/o who is in danger of falling (as by talking to them in an alarming way); MAKA- or IKA- to be frightening (as a precarious position); MA-, MA--AN to be afraid of falling from a high place; to be afraid of falling overboard from a small boat and drowning; MA--ON: mahahanggón s/o who is afraid of heights, or has similar fears, such as falling overboard [MDL]
tagurhám rent, fee for the use of a boat; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to pay rent for a boat; to pay s/o rent for lease of a boat; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to pay a particular fee or rent [MDL]
The ubiquitous small boat which is dug out from the trunk of one tree was either bangká or balóto / baróto. Alcina mentions that the term in the western part of the islands was bangká while those in the eastern part used balóto. This clearly held true for Bikol and the Visayas where the term was either balóto or baróto while Tagalog and Kapampangan, in what may be considered the western part, used bangká.[4] For modern Bikol, baróto is the term in common use, although Lisboa cites only balóto. For Waray, Sánchez de la Rosa cites balóto and Mentrida, for Hiligaynon, baróto. The references for Cebuano are interesting. Mateo Sánchez in his seventeenth century dictionary lists only balóto. Felíz de la Encarnación in the mid nineteenth century has balóto as a headword entry, but all references throughout the dictionary are to baróto which is not listed as a headword. For modern Cebuano, Wolff lists baróto as the main entry which appears to indicate a change in preferred form probably occurring from the eighteenth century.[5] The matter doesn't quite end there for we find that the term bangká is also used in modern Bikol, and has a listing in the Encarnacion Cebuano dictionary. The reason for the spread of this term is undoubtedly its adoption by the Spanish to refer to small water craft in general and its subsequent borrowing and use in these two languages. The Spanish borrowing is most likely from Tagalog where bángka refers to all types of boats and not just those dugout from the trunk of a single tree. Encarnacion, however, does distinguish between the baróto and the bángka, indicating that the latter had outriggers of wood or bamboo used for stability (see Section 5).[6]
baróto boat (typ- small, native); MAG- to go boating; MAG-, I- to take s/t for a ride on a baróto; buró-baróto a toy boat bangká boat (typ- small) One of the most discussed boats is the barángay or balángay as it is this boat that gave its name to the small communities that originally populated the Philippines. The passengers and crew on the boat under the authority of their captain came to establish settlements grouped as they were on the boat, retaining the captain as their leader. This is summarised in the Historical Introduction to the Blair and Robertson series on the Philippines, and is mentioned again in a sixteenth century reference to a sea battle fought off Borneo. W.E. Retana also has an extended entry in his Diccionario de Filipinismos which summarises the history of this term. Additionally there are extensive modern references to the the barángay in the literature of the Philippines.[8] Of the central Philippine language dictionaries, Waray makes reference to the status of the boat, indicating it is an ancient vessel in which a dato' or 'leader' travelled (also see Chapter 13, 'Status and Social Conflict,' Section 1(i)) and Kapampangan to a boat carrying the captain with a crew who acknowledged him as their leader. The other dictionaries do not mention the political status of the boat or its crew with Bikol referring to a boat of medium size, Tagalog to a large boat capable of holding a crew of 12 to 16, and Cebuano describing it as a type of falúa, generally a long, light, narrow boat, with a pointed bow and stern. The entry in Hiligaynon is simply to a 'known boat', but reference is also made to towns on land referred to by the same term with residents under a recognised leader. A detailed description of the barángay, its form and construction and the oars used to propel it can be found in Alcina.[9]
A number of extended articles also exist which discuss boat building and seamanship in the Philippines in a historical context. Of these Henry F. Funtecha examines boat building in the western Visayas, summarising known sources with a focus on Panay, Francisco Ignacio Alcina on the eastern Visayas writing primarily about Samar, and William Henry Scott with a geographically more general discussion on the central Visayas and northern Mindanao, and presenting an English summary of the relevant parts of the Alcina referred to above.[10] Listed in all of the dictionaries are the bíday, bídok, and tundá'on, although, in all but the final example, the definitions vary and are frequently contradictory. For Bikol, the bíday is a boat used inland, certainly on rivers, and most likely in flooded rice fields, and is therefore probably not large. In Tagalog it is described as a small boat. In the Visayas, however, it is a large boat, with Waray indicating it is covered, and Cebuano and Hiligaynon comparing it to a barangay. The definition for Pampanga is simply 'a type of boat'. The bídok in Bikol, Cebuano and Hiligaynon is defined only as a 'type of boat', while in Tagalog it is a small boat and in the neighbourig Pampanga, a large one. Waray has the most complete definition as a long, light boat with a deep draft which is capable of carrying a lot of cargo. This is a boat which also appears in the Crawfurd and Marsden nineteenth century Malay dictionaries, although with differing and contradictory definitions. Crawfurd describes it as a large trading boat used off the west coast of Sumatra, and Marsden as a term referring in general to small boats, a definition which is more in line with modern usage where it is a small vessel used for fishing and the carriage of river cargo. Tundá'on is defined consistently as a small boat which is towed from the stern by a larger ship. The root word here, tundá' 'to tow', is the only form cited in the Kapampangan dictionary.[11]
bíday boat (typ- used inland, probably in rivers and flooded rice fields) [MDL] tundá'on boat (typ- small, carried by a larger ship) [MDL] tundá' MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to row s/o in a boat; to tow another boat [MDL]
luglóg ship, boat (typ- large, like a cutlass, cut from one piece of wood) [MDL] salá (arc-) boat (typ- large) [MDL] Tagalog and Kapampangan also share with Cebuano the panga or pangga. Little information is given for Tagalog and Kapampangan which describe it simply as a type of boat. Retana in his Diccionario de Filipinismos adds that it is light and well-finished, propelled by a sail and oars. The Cebuano entry extends this idea of speciality by adding that it is made to order and given as a gift to someone who intends to use it for coastal fishing or for travelling from one village to another.[16] The three Visayan languages all make reference to the bilos with each dictionary entry describing a different aspect of what is probably the same boat. For Cebuano it a long boat reaching up to 17 metres. The Hiligaynon entry only mentions that it is a boat with a falca made from the bark of a tree. The falca is generally a thin piece of wood placed on the outer rim of a boat, running from the prow to the stern, serving to raise the sides of the boat to increase capacity and prevent the entry of water (also see Section 15). The Waray entry is the most complete describing a boat made from one piece of wood with one or two rows of planks placed above the gunwales (the rim of the boat), and propelled by oars and one or two sails.[17] Cebuano and Hiligaynon share three boat types, the damlog, a boat with a single sail, the yaya described as a wide, flat-bottomed boat, and the duyan, identified as a boat used by the Chinese. I have not discovered any further information about these.[18] Modern Bikol has the paráw, a boat not listed by Lisboa and found only in Tagalog of the other central Philippine languages. It is clearly a borrowing from Malay where it is described by Crawfurd as the generic name for any type of vessel, and by Marsden as the general term for all mid-sized vessels. The Tagalog entry describes it as a small boat with a sail and bamboo outriggers to keep it stable in the wind. The entry in the Retana Diccionario de Filipinismos is substantially different, although it clearly refers to a boat used in the same Tagalog-speaking area. It is described there as a large boat with a high and well-decorated cabin located at the stern, used to carry passengers and cargo on Laguna de Bay and the Pasig River.[19]
Cebuano has two further entries for boats originating in the Moslem south. The first of these is the pilang. This is associated with the Sama-Bajau peoples of the Tawi-Tawi islands in the Philippines and the northern coast of Borneo and has its origin in what is now Malaysia and Indonesia where it is more commonly referenced as pelang. The boat is described as light and flat-bottomed with a bow and stern which do not come to a point. The detailed dictionary entry explains what these boats were used for: 'The Moros usually towed these boats [behind larger vessels] to be used in raids, incursions, and hostile forays into shallow areas near beaches and along the coast where their larger vessels, called pancos, were free from attack or the approach of other vessels. They were also used to surprise unsuspecting sailors who believed they were Christian pirates like themselves embarked on boats similar to their own.'[21] The second entry is pangco (or panco) the larger vessel which towed the pilang. This is described in the Cebuano dictionary as a type of boat with outriggers of wooden poles or bamboo placed on both sides of the boat, joined together and secured to the hull, used to maintain balance and prevent overturning. A full description of this large boat, commonly measuring 24 metres long by 5-6 metres at the widest part of the hull, can be found in Don Emilio Bernáldez, Resena historica de la guerra al sur de Filipinas. This description, plus additional information, can also be found in Retana's Diccionario de Filipinismos.[22] Reference to the caracoa is frequently made to a boat or boats in the Philippines, although none of the central Philippine language dictionaries have this as an entry. Alcina does use this term to refer to a boat he compares to the Spanish brigantine, a two-masted sailing ship with a particular arrangement of sails, although it is probable that he is using this as a general term borrowed originally from Malay, the kura-kura. The term was most likely taken by the Portuguese and subsequently the Spanish from boats found in the Molucas and used as a general reference to boats in Southeast Asia, including the Philippines.[23] The endnote here lists all of the boats included in the central Philippine language dictionaries which have not been discussed above. Also included are those terms which refer to various features which have a general meaning, but may also have a specific reference to boats.[24]
Many of the traditional boats used in the Philippines were fashioned from one piece of wood. These were formed from hollowed-out logs from trees which were particularly suited to this purpose. Identified for Bikol was the takóban, Parashorea plicata, a tall, straight tree with a trunk measuring up to 180 centimetres in diameter. The wood, described as moderately hard and moderately dense, was suitable for dugout boats as well as non-structural areas of house construction such as floors, ceilings and sidings.[25] To prepare the log for hollowing, a long, narrow channel was first cut in the log, salóg. The same term served to describe the hollowing process itself. Having a wider reference is hakón, applying more generally to the removal of things from a container, but also referring specifically to the rough-hewing of a log for the purpose of creating a boat. This reference is not to a finished stage, but most likely to the earlier, cruder stage of removing the wood. The Cebuano entry babha refers to the smoothing out of the wood which will serve as the open or hollowed-out section of the boat.[26]
salóg the long narrow cut or channel made in a log which is to be hollowed out for use as a boat; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to remove the center of a log when hollowing it out; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to hollow out a log in this way for use as a boat [MDL] hakón MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to remove s/t from the inside of a box, basket, container); to remove wood when hollowing out a log in the making of a boat; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to remove s/t from a container; to rough-hew the inside of a log when making a boat; [MDL]
gasá the outer edge of a boat, basin or container; MA- or MAG- to make the rim or outer edge of a boat, basin [MDL] talapí' planks or boards used for the sides of a boat; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to place such boards to form the sides of a boat; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fit a boat with such boards [MDL] tápi' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to cut wood into boards or planks [MDL] bingkóng shipwright's adze (typ- curved, used in the construction of boats); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to work on a boat with a shipwright's adze; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to remove wood, shavings with a shipwright's adze [MDL] báhi' palm (typ-, possessing a hardwood made into pegs used in the construction of boats and other structures, and the shafts of spears and arrows); Livistonia rotundifolia [MDL] Alcina describes one of the many superstitions associated with boat building, in this case relating to the choice of wood. When a piece of timber was chosen for the boat, the nodes would be counted. This was because the number of nodes as well as the position of the plank in a finished boat was believed to affect its agility. If the numbers or the position were wrong, then the boat would not have qualities of speed and lightness.[30] Once the construction of the outer hull was completed, only then was the internal frame of the boat added.[31] The curved ribs forming this frame were comprised of wood referred to as futtock timbers, balukawí. For Bikol, one of the trees identified as having suitable wood for these timbers was the bitá'og, most probably the Calophyllum inophyllum, although possibly another tree of the same genus. This is a tree with a straight trunk up to 60 centimetres in diameter and reaching up to 20 metres in height. It was also used for other parts of a boat, such as masts and spars, as well as the posts, beams and joists of houses.[32] A list of Philippine trees whose wood was suitable for all aspects of shipbuilding can be found in Commercial Woods of the Philippines.[33]
bitá'og tree (typ- producing a wood used for the brackets and futtock timbers of a boat; Calophyllum inophyllum) [+MDL: tree (typ- called María - this name is added only in the Spanish-Bikol Index; more accurately the species is referred to by the Spanish as palomaria]
siksík MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to fill the joints and seams of a boat with fiber from a coconut husk or other suitable material; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to treat a particular section of a boat in this way; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use coconut fiber for this purpose [MDL] bárok a cotton-like fiber taken from various mountain palms generally referred to as hágol; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to collect such fiber; to use such fiber for caulking; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to remove this fiber from such palms; to caulk boats with such fiber [MDL] hágol palm tree (typ- found in the mountains, producing a wood good for making ducts or guttering and flooring for houses; Caryota cumingii) [+MDL: hagól a palm similar to báhi', Livistonia rotundifolia, the fronds of which are used to decorate churches during fiestas] gúnot woody fiber found between the fronds of the hágol palm [MDL] Once the boards were pegged and sealed, and firmly lashed to the internal frame, the hull was strapped with rattan and the boards tapped to tighten them and set them firmly in place (sampók). Tightening could also be accomplished by launching a newly constructed boat and having the water tighten the boards as they expanded (Tagalog lutang). Such boats, constructed of light wood and having a shallow draft, resulted in vessels that were light (langbós) and able to move swiftly through the water (túlin).[36]
langbós light (a boat) [MDL] túlin MA- describing a boat that is light, swift and easy to handle; MA- or MAG- to travel swiftly and lightly (a boat); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to travel to a particular destination in such a boat; Abóng túlin na sakáyan iní What a light and easy to handle boat this is [MDL]
dagpák tree bark placed against the edges of a boat and used to raise the height of its sides; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use bark for this purpose; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to increase the height of the sides of a boat by adding such bark [MDL] nípa' palm (typ- possessing leaves used for roofing and walls, and a sap from which wine may be obtained and vinegar may be fermented; Nypa fruticans) [+MDL] darúpi' fronds of the nípa' palm or other palms joined or added to the outer edges of a boat; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to add such fronds; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to cover the edges of a boat with such fronds [MDL] rúrog guard rail or vertical grating around the perimeter of a boat, usually covered with bark; MA- or MAG- to fit a boat with such rails [MDL] The terms tápi' and talapí' are also found in the Visayan languages, but with meanings that differ from the Bikol. In Hiligaynon, it is defined simply as 'a board' and in Cebuano as 'a board used for the siding of a boat'. For Waray it is either a 'board' or nipa fronds' which are added to dugout boats to increase their capacity. As for talapí', the meanings in Waray and Cebuano refer to bark, nipa fronds or the fronds of other palms, such as the coconut, which raise the sides of dugout boats. In Hiligaynon it carries the same meaning as dalúpi', that is, serving as reenforcement for a previous layer of bark along the outer edge of a boat. Waray and Cebuano also have a specific term for the removal of this addition, respectively cacas and cascas.[39] Cebuano also has specific names for some of the boards or strakes that are used in a boat's construction. Boards that are placed on either side of the upper rim of a boat and used to raise the sides or the gunwales, are the timbaw, a term also shared with Hiligaynon. Those that are placed on either side and closest to the keel are the padkot. The final board added to a boat under construction is the talaghot. This is, most likely, the stem, the board which extends up from the keel, curves across the front of the bow, and reaches up to the gunwales. The same entry in Waray does not help to clarify this, as it has the general meaning of 'to strengthen' or 'to reenforce something'.[40] Many of the Philippine vessels were flat-bottomed boats that had no keel. These had a shallow draft with little of the hull below the water. As a result, they were easily moved by strong currents on seas with little wind, or hindered in their forward movement when seas were rough.[41] The keel (sagód) is a beam constructed along the bottom of the hull (tukód), reaching from bow to stern and serving to give stability to the boat as it moves forward through the water. The keel on some early Philippine vessels could be very basic, simply a board a few centimetres thicker than the surrounding boards of the hull.[42]
túkod MAG-, PAG--ON to construct the keel of a boat; MAG-, IPAG- to use particular wood in constructing the keel [MDL] As for the the prow of a boat, dúlong, identical terms are used in the Visayas, with the cognate duwong found in Tagalog. The stern, ulín, also appears with identical terms in the Visayas, the cognate mulin in Kapampangan, and huli in Tagalog. Associated with these nominal forms, are the actions of controlling a boat, in each case involving someone steering either at the front with an oar, or at the rear by manning the rudder or using a large oar in its place.[44]
ulín stern of a boat; MAG-, PAG--AN to navigate or steer a boat; to be in charge of a boat and its passengers; MAG-, IPAG- to steer a boat using oars; PAG- a large oar serving as a rudder; PARA- helmsman [MDL] dayángas MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to work on the upper parts of the prow and stern of a boat [MDL]
balangikóg branch extending from the stern of a boat used as a rudder when sailing alone to collect clams, mussels; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to attach such a branch to the stern of a boat; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a branch for this purpose [MDL]
During a boat's construction, not everything always went according to plan. The finished vessel could turn out to have sides that were too low (gapás), the bow or stern could be poorly formed due to imperfections in the wood used in its construction (pangí'), or the wood used could have a knot or crack though which water was able enter (anát).
pangí' a boat with a poorly formed bow or stern due to imperfections in the wood used in its construction [MDL] anát a knot or crack in a boat through which water can enter [MDL] Boats could be damaged for any number of reasons, battered by large waves, ripped into by strong winds, holed by rocks or other underwater obstacles, or they could just exhibit the ravages of old age or the harm from shipworm (see Section 13). These boats would have to be repaired (tutók), generally supported by beams to keep them upright when dry-docked (sangkí') and then relaunched after the repair is completed (hanggál). A simple repair might just involve securing the hull with rattan to keep it from deteriorating further (saba'óng) or it could be far more involved. The greatest number of terms relating to the repair of boats is found in the Visayan languages with lumbo / rumbo shared across the three languages discussed here. This process involved the removal of all of the damaged or rotten timbers forming the hull and replacing them with the new. A full repair also involved the renewing of the ties that held the boards to the frame (Cebuano baladbad), and the replacement of boards that no longer enabled a tight seal when they were joined (Cebuano ung'ag, Hiligaynon ungkag). The endnote here includes all of the terms relevant to repair.[49]
sangkí' a piece of timber or a beam used for support (as for a house during a typhoon, a dry-docked boat to keep it from falling on its side, a wall of earth to keep it from collapsing); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to support s/t with a sangkí'; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use a length of timber as a prop or support [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to prop s/t up with a sangkí'] hanggál MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to launch a boat after having completed its construction, or after repair of its sides [MDL] saba'óng rattan (typ- used for lashing old boats so they won't break apart); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to lash or tie together old boats with this type of rattan [MDL]
We now come to the outriggers, kátig, the same term used in each of the central Philippine languages under discussion here.[50] An outrigger is a structure extending out from the edge of a boat and used to stabilise the boat and keep it from capsizing. In the Philippines, double outriggers were used, that is, a structure extending out from both sides of the boat. How many banks or lines of support were part of the outrigger, thereby extending it further out from the side of the boat, depended on the number of additional rowers who were required for it was the rowers who were seated on the outriggers themselves (see below). Alcina records that the larger boats in the Philippines could have four to six banks with 12, 15 or 20 rowers on each. In Cebuano, sanib refers to a boat with two or more banks of rowers.[51]
Added to and running the length of each of these banks of outriggers are bamboo seats called daramba where rowers can be seated if additional rowers are needed (see Section (9(ii)). Along the length of the boat from prow to stern are planks forming the decking which Alcina refers to as burolan. Three of these extend over the parts of the batangan which cross over the hull, the central plank the widest and highest, with the two on either side, lower and narrower. The batangán appears in all of the central Philippine languages with the exception of Kapampangan, but only in Tagalog, Cebuano and Hiligaynon does it have a reference to boats. In Bikol and Waray it refers only the to structural beams or joists used to support the floors of houses. As for tadik, (Hiligaynon tarik) the wood to which the floats of the outriggers are attached, this appears only in the Visayan languages. The daramba (Cebuano dalamba, Tagalog dalambaan, alternatively dalana in Hiligaynon and daraná in Bikol) refers specifically to the seats of rowers only in Tagalog, Waray and Cebuano. In Bikol and Hiligaynon the definition is more general, with reference only to a platform or scaffold-like structure.[53]
daraná platform, scaffold [MDL]
Covering a large part of the deck and used to protect the passengers from the sun and rain was an awning-like enclosure, kayáng. This is a large palm mat generally woven from the fronds of the nípa' or burí palms, although other wide-leaf plants such as the karagúmoy, a type of pandanus (Pandanus simplex), was also used. Kayáng appears in identical form in the Visayan languages, with the cognate karang in Tagalog and Kapampangan.[54]
burí talipot palm (typ- palm having a spreading crown of fan-like leaves; Corypha umbraculifera) [+MDL: the fruits are used for making necklaces] karagúmoy plant (typ- thorny, possessing leaves used in weaving mats and baskets; Pandanus simplex) [+MDL: also used to weave the boat awning called kayáng]
siná'op a boat awning (kayáng) made from palm leaves such as nípa' and burí which has been extended by an addition placed at the center [MDL]
tindóg PA- posts used on boats forming part of the structural framework upon which the awning called kayáng is placed; MAPA-, PA--AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to secure such posts on a boat; MAPA-, IPA- or MAGPA-, IPAGPA- to use posts for such a purpose [MDL] tubóngan wood or bamboo poles used to form the crosspieces of the framework supporting the awning (kayáng) which is placed over the deck of a boat; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to add crosspieces of wood or bamboo to such a framework; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use wood or bamboo for this purpose [MDL] taludtód the ties used for lashing the awning called kayáng to a boat; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to tie the sides of the kayáng to a boat; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to tie a kayáng to a boat [MDL]
rangkápan bamboo seat on a boat [MDL] ruwáng referring to the space on a boat (between seats or partitions, or in compartments); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to leave a set amount of space between seats, partitions [MDL] mang- verbal affix, general action series, infinitive-command form: BASE ha'bón; INFINITIVE - COMMAND manga'bón to go around stealing; PAST nanga'bón; PROGRESSIVE nanganga'bón; FUTURE manganga'bón [+MDL: prefixed to numbers, mang- indicates how many seats a particular boat has: manuwá a boat with two seats; manatló three seats; mangapát four seats; manlimá five seats; manganóm six seats] saringbál bamboo bed; cot, such as that used on boats, ships [MDL] dapóg hearth, fireplace, a place for cooking; kitchen [+MDL: PARA-: paradápog or TAGÁ-: tagadápog cook] Bikol shares the meanings of tu'áy and tumu'áy with Tagalog, without, however, the latter's reference to a particular seat. Bulód in Bikol refers to the seat in the middle of the boat reserved for the captain and laygáy to the commanding of the boat and the issuing of instructions or orders.
tumu'áy captain of a boat [MDL] bulód MA- or MAG- to sit in the middle of a boat (the captain or the one giving orders); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to occupy a seat in the middle of a boat (the captain); -AN: bubuldán the seat occupied by the captain in the middle of the boat [MDL] laygáy MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to be in command of a boat, vessel; to be in charge of a ship; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to issue particular orders to the crew of a boat; also indicates: to be in charge of the servants and slaves in one's house: Mará'ot an da'í naglalaygáy sa mga urípon It's bad for one not to be in charge of one's slaves; Mará'ot an da'í naglalaygáy sa tibá'ad nang tuklós It's bad for one not to be in charge of those who are working [MDL]
The large, covered shelter with a roof but no walls, described by Lisoba as used primarily for storing boats, was the kamálig. This term in modern Bikol refers not so much to the storing of boats, but to the storage of harvested crops. They are commonly set up in the fields where they are close to the harvested grain.
Boats in the Philippines were propelled by both sails and oars, either individually or together, and the detailed entries in the early dictionaries, relating particularly to sails, indicate the importance of this method of propulsion. Compared to Tagalog and the Visayan languages, both Bikol and Kapampangan have a rather limited set of terms relating to sails. The discussion which follows includes the Bikol terms, but focuses primarily on the languages where sailing terms are more prevalent. The sail, láyag, is a term shared by all of the central Philippine languages and the mast, pulayágan, a derivation of this term, used in Cebuano and, with the variant palayágan, in Tagalog and Hiligaynon. A second term for mast in Bikol, tuládok, shown as a synonym by Lisboa, also has its cognates in Cebuano (taladok) and Hiligaynon (tularok). Sails would normally be woven from a cloth-like material. If constructed from a number of panels, as would be the case if these were woven on a backstrap loom, these would first be arranged and attached using a baste stitch (Kapampangan salisol) which could easily be removed when the final stitching was completed. The cloth of a finalised sail would also have to be properly tensioned. Cebuano entries indicate that it could be drawn too tightly due to the reenforcing ropes which were sewn along the edges (respectively paktad and bahayan). As for the sails of small boats, these could be crafted like a mat and woven from the fronds of the nípa' or burí palms (Waray, sagodan, Cebuano sugodan). The masts which held the sails were the trunks of trees that were smooth and round, free of knots and shorn of rough edges (Cebuano, Waray lison). To strengthen masts to make sure they did not split, and if they had, to repair and reenforce them, wooden poles would be tied with rattan around the weakened areas (Cebuano langkob, Hiligaynon laki-laki). Also in Cebuano is the term suklay which refers both to the struts used to support and align the masts, and to a distance of one metre from the foremast to the bow. Masts that once were properly secured to a boat could be weakened by age or rough seas, leaning to one side or the other (Hiligaynon, Cebuano lawog) or falling and crashing down across the deck (Hiligaynon lantay), and those carrying sails that were too heavy or driven by the force of too strong a wind could unbalance the boat causing it to list (Cebuano pakwang).[58]
pulayágan mast (of a boat with sails); MA- or MAG- to have a mast (a boat); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to fit a boat with a mast; syn- tuládok [MDL] The large wooden spar which was set horizontally or diagonally across the mast was referred to as a yard. For square-rigged ships, the horizontal yard was supported from above by a series of slings and secured to the mast by a moveable loop called a parrel. The head or the top of a square sail was attached to the leading edge of this yard, referred to in Bikol as kulyáw. To prevent a square-rigged sail from accidentally blowing backward toward the mast, one end of a rope called a bowline was attached to the edge of the sail and the other anchored at the bow of the boat. This bowline is referred to as bilok in Tagalog and the Visayan languages. It attaches via a rod which is hooked onto a rattan ring tied or sewn into the sail. This rod is sundong in Tagalog, Cebuano and Hiligaynon. Cebuano also has the entry baliting referring both to a headwind and sailing into the wind. The Spanish translation is viento de bolina; navegar con el 'the bowline wind; sail into the bowline wind'. A yard which is placed diagonally across the mast is called a lateen yard, bahwan in Tagalog. A triangular sail running lengthwise from fore to aft is attached to this yard, allowing the boat to better sail into the wind than one equipped with a square sail. Entries in the Visayan languages refer to a boom, the spar or pole attached to the bottom of this sail which improves control of its movement and angle (Waray bangkaran, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, bangkalan) although not all lateen sails had such a boom. A second yard which crosses the mast is libo'in, also in Tagalog. A square-rigged ship may also have a topsail (Cebuano pangapo), secured to its own yard and placed on the mast above the lowermost sail, a location better positioned to catch the higher-level winds. The sail can be raised, bugnós, or lowered, the ropes enabling this referred to as halyards. More specifically, Hiligaynon uses the term sangkol when sails were raised to the topmost point.[60] Both Waray and Cebuano share with Bikol the term bantíng referring the various cables and ties, whether of rope or rattan, used to change the position of the sails. Cebuano names one of these cables as butong-butong. All of the languages have the term bugnós with the meaning of either to raise or set the sails. Tagalog alone has the term kulyáw defined as a 'sail sheet' which differs from the meaning given for Bikol. A 'sail sheet' is the term used to refer to the ropes, cables or chains that are attached to the moveable corners of a sail, referred to as 'clews', and used to control their movement. These 'sheets' have different names depending on the particular sail which they control. Tagalog and the Visayan languages share the term bilo-bilo for one of these sheets. Another sheet in the Visayan languages is buhi-buhi. In Tagalog the non-reduplicated form, buhi, refers to the release of a sheet. Panindi is a third sheet mentioned for Tagalog, and in Cebuano, wayway refers specifically to the manipulation of one these sheets to reduce the amount of wind into the sail[61].
kulyáw the head or top of a square sail which is attached to the leading edge of a yard (a wooden pole or spar set at right angles to the mast, used to spread the sail) [MDL] bugnós MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to hoist s/t by rope (a sail or similar object); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to pull on s/t (such as a rope) when hoisting s/t; -ON: bugnóson the rope used for hoisting a sail [MDL] Sails that did not catch enough wind to inflate would hang loosely (Tagalog tambakolon, Waray pilik-pilik, Cebuano kuyap-kuyap), and large ships carrying a lot of sail at a time of slack wind would move slowly and sluggishly through the water (Hiligaynon aginir). At such times it would be necessary to row to keep the ship moving forward. There are a number of terms in the Visayan languages which refer to this: Waray and Cebuano share the cognates garabay / galabay respectively, and Cebuano and Hiligaynon dalabay and sugot (also see Section 9(iii)).[63] The reason why a boat moved sluggishly through the water was not always attributed to natural causes. A belief in supernatural creatures might lead those onboard to believe that the udóngan (see udóng) was holding onto the boat from behind and keeping it from moving quickly forward. And if a boat was becalmed with no forward motion at all, attention could focus on the amamalíw, a whale which had placed itself under the boat so no forward movement was possible (bunóg).
bunóg MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to stop a boat from moving forward no matter how vigorously it is rowed (the whale called amamalíw which is said to place itself beneath the boat) [MDL] Sails that caught too much wind needed to be lowered quickly, particularly when running before a storm (Cebuano, Hiligaynon landak). A sail's exposure to the wind could also be reduced by a process called 'reefing' or 'adding a reef to a sail' (Tagalog banting). This is where the area of a sail is reduced 'usually by folding or rolling one edge of the canvas in on itself and attaching the unused portion to a spar or a stay'. This is undertaken in the first instance to maintain the stability of the vessel when encountering strong winds as it is easier than changing the sail. When the area of the full sail is restored, it is called 'shaking out a reef'. The Cebuano entries humon and tabo-tabo touch on the processes of folding or rolling the sail and tucking it in or attaching it to a spar or stay.[65] Sails would be fully lowered after coming into port (Cebuano, Hiligaynon lukas) requiring the feeding of more rope until they were completely down (Tagalog tagustos, Hiligaynon wayway). As the sails were lowered they were gathered-up close to the mast (Cebuano, Hiligaynon hagokon), although the Waray entry lugmo indicates that this could be done incorrectly when gathered too close. Sails, once lowered should have been rolled and stored in a secure place (Cebuano lukot), but on occasion they were gathered up roughly and left unstored (Cebuano lugmok). Those that were ripped by the force of the wind (respectively Waray kagisian, Cebuano hudos) would have to repaired.[66] Sailing is clearly affected by the wind and the ocean currents. When travelling with the current and prevailing wind blowing from behind, the vessel is driven easily forward (sundóy). It is different when travelling against the current and into the wind (sungsóng). This is called 'sailing close to the wind' or 'sailing close hauled' (sarampí). As it is impossible to sail directly into the wind, sailing close hauled refers to sailing at the edge of the wind, that is at an angle so that the passage of the wind forms a vacuum over the surface of the sail which pulls the boat forward. In this situation it is necessary to 'trim the sails', (randák). This refers to changing the position of the sails to reflect the angle of the boat to the wind. The movement of the sails from side to side to capture the best angle for the wind is called 'tacking' (Tagalog piyok, Hiligaynon balihas).[67]
sungsóng MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to go against the current or into the wind; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to steer a boat into the wind or against the current; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to enter an area where one has to go against the current or head into the wind; (fig-) Mará'ot kon pagsungsongán tang naaanggót pa It's not a good idea to contradict one who is still angry [MDL] sarampí sailing close to the wind [MDL] randák MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to trim the sails; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to trim the sails of a boat [MDL]
The common term for 'oar' in modern Bikol is sagwán which referred historically to a small oar used to propel small boats. Of the other central Philippine languages, sagwán appears only in Tagalog where it is also described as small, resembling a shovel, and formed from one piece of wood. The blade of an oar is pánig. For larger boats, the gá'od (cognate ga'or), is the oar mentioned for all of the central Philippine languages. This was a large oar attached to a long shaft called, in Bikol, garayán. Dali'ásan is the timber which is placed across the poles at the edge of the boat on which this oar rests and keeps it in place when not in use. A detailed description of the gá'od given by Alcina for the Eastern Visayas is, for the most part, applicable to all of the central language regions.
pánig the blade of an oar [MDL] gá'od boat (typ- small, holding two men, one who uses an oar to row and one who uses an oar to steer); MAG-, -AN to row a boat in this way [MDL: ga'ód oars (typ- large, used to row large boats); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to row a boat with such oars; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to displace water with such oars] garayán handle of the large oar called gá'od [MDL] dali'ásan the timber which is placed across the poles at the edge of a boat in which the large oars called gá'od rest and serve to keep these oars in place when not in use [MDL] An oarlock, sulangót, and a tholepin, tungkaróg are two different arrangements for holding an oar to the side of a boat. An oarlock generally comprises a U-shaped prong attached to the edge of a boat, and the tholepin is generally one or two pegs also attached to the gunwale or boat edge. The Spanish translation in the early dictionaries is tolete for both of these terms, although the Waray and Cebuano entries for sulangót also include a reference to the Spanish estrobo which describes the pole-like arrangement of the gá'od, but used for smaller oars on smaller boats. This would be more like a tholepin. In the case where only one peg is used for the tholepin, this would fit into a hole prepared in the shaft of the oar. Sulangót is also found in Hiligaynon where the term applies to both smaller and larger oars including the gá'od. In Kapampangan reference is made to an oarlock made from bamboo (gadgaran) and in Waray to cord which is used to tie the oars to a boat (buga'ot), most likely to an existing oarlock or tholepin.[72]
tungkaróg tholepin, oarlock; (fig-) MAG- to stand around: Anó ta' nagtungkaróg ka na dihán sa tatá? Why are you blocking the doorway?; Anó ta' nagtutungkaróg ka lámang; da'í ka natuklós? Why are you just standing around; shouldn't you be working? [MDL]
The number of rowers on a boat depended both on the size of the boat and the nature of the expedition. The size of the boat and, therefore, the number of rowers who were required, could be indicated in Bikol by adding the numerical affix ka-an to a number where the first syllable was reduplicated. For example, a boat which was suitable for four rowers would be referred to as ka- + aapát + -an = kaaapatán where apát means 'four'. Hagkód referred to the full contingent of rowers, whatever this number might have been. In Hiligaynon, sangkap carries this same meaning. While a full contingent of rowers may have sounded ideal, it was also possible that a miscalculation led to the boat being overmanned, with the weight of rowers leading to slow and sluggish progress through the water (Cebuano labod). This could also be financially damaging for the owner of the boat as each of the rowers had to be paid and fed (Cebuano, respectively baliga, palabol).[73] Specific terms also referred to those who rowed a boat alone, isolán, and those who rowed in pairs, sitting side by side, pingí, this second term also used in Tagalog and Waray. Isolán is interesting as its root is isól which refers to the giving of orders to those over which one has responsibility, in other words, orders given by a foreman or overseer, an unusual usage when one is alone in a boat. The Waray li'o-li'o also refers to a single rower who is placed between the prow and the stern in the centre of a small boat, rowing with a single oar first on one side of the boat, and then on the other. Reference is also made to rowing someone in a boat (tundá) and helping someone row a boat, with the rowers either side by side, or one seated at the prow and the other at the stern (tuwáng) a term shared with Hiligaynon.[74]
hagkód complete, exact (the rowers or crew of a boat) Hagkód nang gáyo an pagsakáy There is a full complement of rowers; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to adjust the number of rowers of a boat; to complete the crew of a boat; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to add particular rowers to complete a crew; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to complete a crew with the addition of rowers [MDL] isolán MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to sit in the prow and single-handedly row a boat; to sail solo [MDL] isól MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to give orders to those working on s/t over which you have responsibility (a foreman, overseer) [MDL] pingí MAG- to be side by side (two rowers in a boat;PAG--ON to be in pairs; to be side by side; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to sit next to a rower (another who has come to join him); also [MDL] tundá' MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to row s/o in a boat; to tow another boat [MDL] tuwáng [+MDL: MAG- ... to help in rowing a boat, one person sitting on either side, or one at the prow and one at the stern; MAG-, PAG--AN to row a boat, one person positioned on either side, or one at the prow and the other at the stern; MA-, -AN to help s/o in rowing a boat; KA- companion in rowing]
dayhág MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to drag or carry a boat for launching in the sea, or over a narrow stretch of land which separates one river from another; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to carry or drag a boat over a particular area for this purpose [MDL]
Rowing took different forms at different speeds depending on the need or situation. For Bikol hiráhid referred to a type of rowing without lifting the oars from the side of the boat, presumably referring to oars that were fixed to the side at a tholepin or oarlock. Rowing could be quick with repetitive strokes, speeding up from a period of relative slowness, karáy-karáy, or the strokes could be rapid and choppy accompanied by the expression úkhi'-úkhi' uttered by the rowers as they moved through the water. While the rowing of a crew had to be rhythmically coordinated (see Section 9 (vii)), there were times when some of the rowers rowed too slowly, thereby falling out of time with the others who continued to row at the required speed (hiluwás). The Kapampangan kawal reflects a similar sentiment where rowers who row lazily also throw off the rhythm of the others, and in Hiligaynon sayup describes occasions where boats arrive late due to rowers not coordinating their strokes to the rhythm of an accompanying song, thereby slowing the forward progress of the boat. In Tagalog kiwa refers to people who are generally lazy in their work habits, including when rowing. In order to prevent rowers from slowing down and thereby breaking the rhythm followed by their companion rowers, commands are uttered from the one in charge to keep them moving (Cebuano hadaw, hili). The late arrival of boats need not have always been the fault of the rowers, In Kapampangan sabagal refers to oars that repeatedly get caught up in the plant referred to as 'water lettuce', quiapo, which also gets caught on the outriggers, and restricts the forward movement of the boat.[76]
karáy-karáy MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to row a boat with quick repetitive strokes of the oar, speeding up after initially rowing slowly [MDL] úkhi'-úkhi' expression uttered by rowers when rowing quickly with choppy strokes [MDL] hiluwás MA- or MAG- to row slowly and not in time with the others who are rowing fast; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to move oars in this way; Kurí doy kainíng pagsagwán ta; da'í máyo' kitá nahiluwás Our rowing is just great; not even one person is out of sync [MDL]
burákay describing water disturbed or agitated by an oar when rowing; (PAG-)-AN to be disturbed or agitated by an oar (water); MAG- to disturb or agitate water (an oar); Nagburakay na an sinagwán The rowing is disturbing the water; var- bulákay [MDL] rumbá' MAG- to race to determine which is fastest (two boats); MA-, -ON to defeat a boat in such a race; MA- to be the fastest boat [MDL]
The rowers also used their oars to move and steer a boat in various ways, straightening it up when listing by placing the oars against the hull of the boat to deflect water, hawóng, and keeping a boat level when passing through a heavy swell (Cebuano habay). Boats could also be set back on course by turning them with an oar, kábig, or more specifically, by doing this by rowing from the prow, hambílong. In this way boats could also be turned completely around so that the positions of prow and stern were reversed, palíng. In Tagalog, the cognates, hawal and huwal refer to similar manoeuvres, respectively bringing a boat to a stop, and controlling a boat with the oars. Duwit refers to using an oar to steer, but not to row. This may refer to a technique of moving upstream against the current when an oar is used to deflect the water against the side of boat, driving it forward. Not all steering was done satisfactorily., with ríwag-díwag describing the movement of a boat where the prow moves from side to side, not what is intended for a boat that should be moving smoothly forward. The Tagalog libor-libor defines a similar situation, where lack of control of the rudder moves the boat first to the right and then to the left, either through lack of skill, deliberately or as a result of rough seas.[78]
kábig MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to set a boat back on course by turning it with an oar; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use an oar for this purpose [MDL] hambílong MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to set a boat back on course by using an oar to steer from the prow; to aid in controlling a boat by rowing at the prow; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use an oar for this purpose [MDL] palíng MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to turn a boat completely around so that the positions of the prow and stern are reversed [MDL] ríwag-díwag MA- or MAG- to move from side to side (the prow of a boat which is not properly steered); to sway back and forth (the tip of s/t which is long and thin); (fig-) Karíwag-díwag mong magtatarám You'll say the first thing that comes into your mind without first thinking things out properly [MDL]
Rowing is generally not a silent activity, although as we have seen with the Bikol entry kalápay, it is possible to row slowly and relatively quietly. Dictionary terms generally refer to the sound of the oars moving through the water (Cebuano sabal, Kapampangan alpok, lagwak) or the sound of oars hitting the side of the boat: Bikol hampók, Waray ragabrab, Cebuano hulakdol, and Hiligaynon sakdol, and in the case of Kapampangan, the pole striking the side, sinkil. These sounds could be made accidentally as a consequence of rowing quickly, or they could be made deliberately, to signal another boat nearby or to frighten off a crocodile that may be swimming closeby (see Chapter 17, 'Hunting and Trapping,' Section 5(vii)).[79]
Poles were used in the place of oars to propel boats in areas near the coast and in the shallower parts of rivers. The pole, tukón, was generally a thin length of bamboo. Some of the poles were also provided with a forked stick (síngit) placed into the lower end which reached the sea or riverbed (sugkád). This enabled a greater grip on the ground, allowing the boat to both stop relatively quickly or move forward relatively fast. Poles were also used to keep boats from running aground when they entered shallow water along the coast or river banks, tukláng in Bikol and sapol in Kapampangan.
síngit the fork of a tree; MAG- to grow in such a way (a tree); PAG--AN the branching or forking of a river or road [+MDL: singít a forked stick usually placed into a length of bamboo and used for polling a boat (tukón); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to fix such a forked stick to a bamboo pole; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use such a pole to control a boat; MAG- to make a fork shape from two branches, sticks; -AN: sisingítan a bamboo pole with a forked stick at its base, used for propelling a boat; (fig-) Garó ka na nagsisingít It's like you are growing into a fork-shape (Said when one says s/t that is unbelievable)] sugkád MA- or MAG- to hit the bottom (as when jumping into shallow water); to touch bottom (the feet); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to touch the bottom with a pole (as when polling a boat in shallow water); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to touch the bottom with a pole, the feet); -AN: sinusugkáran the bottom; the seabed or riverbed; -AN: sinugkáran horizon [MDL] tukláng MAG-, I- to shove s/t; to thrust s/t [MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to pole a boat, keeping it from running aground; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to push off from the shore, rocks]
To keep all of the rowers moving at the same pace and maintaining the same rhythm of rowing, songs were sung. The Bikol songs are presented below, but a more detailed discussion can be found in Chapter 15, 'Arts and Language,' Sections 3(iv) and 3(v).
híla' a work song sung when pulling or hauling s/t, or when rowing; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to pull or haul s/t, or row while singing [MDL] huló song (typ- sung when rowing, or when pulling or hauling s/t); MA- or MAG- to sing this type of song [MDL] humúlo song (typ- sung when setting out to sea or when hauling s/t heavy); MA- or MAG- to sing in this way; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to sing a particular song when working in this way [MDL]
Navigation in the Philippines was done for the most part by sight, setting out from one visible point of land and heading for another, with longer crossings completed by following from island to island. When a land mass was not visible, there were signs that it still lay ahead, recognisable by the presence of birds, or fish, or floating matter, or meteorological signs such as cloud formations or particular patterns of lightning.[81] Navigation could be accomplished by sailing in a straight line from one point to another (tawáng), or by following the outline of the coast from one bay to another, a longer and more tortuous route (sugád). Where a particular destination was in sight, the prow would be turned and a course would be set directly to that area (waydóng). Adjustments could be made along the way to keep on course (tutungól) and where necessary, the course could be changed to set off in a new direction (waldós). When a boat was not headed to a particular destination, then it could simply be sailed back and forth on the river or sea, going nowhere, often seen as just wasting time (útaw-útaw).
sugód ... a cove, bay or inlet; KA--AN: kasugdán or kasugóran corner, edge; the central and most deeply indented part of a cove bay; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN ... to navigate along the shore of a cove, bay; to travel by a winding or tortuous route; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to travel in a long or roundabout way to get s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to take s/t along such a route [MDL] waydóng MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to turn the prow of a boat on a straight course; MA-, -AN to set a straight course for a particular place; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to move the rudder or sails, turning the prow [MDL] tutungól MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to turn the prow of a boat in a particular direction; to keep a course in a particular direction or toward a particular destination [MDL] waldós MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to turn the prow of a boat, changing course to a new direction; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to turn the prow in a particular direction or toward a particular area [MDL] útaw-útaw MA- or MAG- to sail a boat back and forth on a river or in the sea (going nowhere, just wasting time) [MDL]
tá'ak MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to travel, making your way through dense forest; to travel far out to sea; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to move through dense forest or go out to sea to get s/t or for a particular reason [MDL] rusáros MA- or MAG- to head for deep water so as not to be stranded by low tide (boats); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to take a boat into deep water [MDL]
sanggílid MAG-, -ON to navigate or sail a boat along the banks of a river and not down the middle [+MDL: sanggilíd MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to navigate a river, staying close to the banks and away from the center; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to sail along the banks of a river for s/t] sulóng creek, brook; channel; MAG- to navigate such a channel [+MDL: channel, upper reaches of a river; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to navigate a channel or the upper reaches of a river; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to travel such a channel to get s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to take s/t with you on such a journey; Sulongá nindó idtóng súrat Take this letter with you on the journey upriver] bugáwas MAKA-, MA--AN to emerge into the open sea after travelling downstream (a boat, a dead body) [MDL] sábang the mouth of a river; conjunction (as of two rivers); junction (of railroad tracks, streets, rivers); crossing, crossroads, fork, intersection [+MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to enter through the mouth of a river; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to navigate a boat through the mouth of a river; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to enter the mouth of a river to get s/t] dálit MA- or MAG- to head toward a river (to have access to a pier, wharf) [MDL]
langán a deep canal dug in the shallows, used by boats so they don't have to venture out to the open sea when it is rough [MDL] ákan MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to dig a channel on the beach or riverbed with the hands or an oar to enable the passage or landing of a boat [MDL] dalnáy MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to swim (fish in a muddy area with little water); to enter such an area (a boat); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to steer a boat into such an area [MDL]
When a particular location was set and there was no reason to stop or detour, then a boat would head straight to its destination (tagál). At other times, stops would be made along the way to rest (dangán-dangán) or to pick something up that needed to be transported onward (hapít). There were also more forgetful times when cargo or other items of importance got left behind and needed to retrieved, requiring a return to port (ígod, balugbóg).
dangán-dangán MAG- to stop for a time when travelling on foot or in a boat, then continuing on one's way; MAG-, PAG--ON to stop for a particular reason; MAG-, PAG--AN to stop at a particular place; Da'í nagdangán-dangán kon minala'óg Don't hesitate when entering the house (come straight in) [MDL] hapít MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to travel by boat to pick s/t up so that it may be transported onward to another place; PARA- boatman [MDL] ígod MA- or MAG- to fall backward (one who is seated); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to return to get s/t which has been left behind (a boat); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to turn a boat back to get s/t left behind; (fig-) Nagígod na lámang akó kainíng dará ko I've just come back for my cargo (Said when s/o could not transport all they were asked to) [MDL] balugbóg MA- or MAG- to go back or return (a boat); to turn a boat around; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to go back for s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to go back to a particular area; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to bring s/t back [MDL]
hiwasá y MA- or MAG- to follow in formation (as boats following one another in a line); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to arrange things in some type of order; to unravel or disentangle s/t; (fig-) Paghiwasayá daw mú'na akó Give me some breathing space (Said when one is being pressured into paying off a debt, but does not have the money to do so) [MDL] bákay MA- or MAG- to follow one behind the other down a river or along the coast (those traveling by boat, like puppies following their mother); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to follow another boat; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to follow a particular river or coastline; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to transport s/t in such a convoy [MDL] bángal MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to follow after another boat (a second boat, in order to catch up with or overtake it); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to set out in a second boat to overtake the first [MDL]
tampák exposed (a boat, a port); exposed to the wind; -AN an area exposed to the wind [MDL] ungáb MAKA, MA- to be able to sail in bad weather and through rough seas; MAKA-, MA- -AN to sail through an area of bad weather and rough seas; DA'Í MAKA-, MA- to be unable to sail in such conditions [MDL] ugsód MAG- to be pushed or carried along by the wind or current (a boat); MAG-, I- to push s/t ahead; to nudge s/t so that it moves forward [+MDL: MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to push or drag a boat toward the water; to roll s/t forward on the ground (such as length of bamboo, a log); MA-, -AN: ugsorán or MAG-, PAG--AN: pagugsorán to drag a boat toward the water; to roll a log, bamboo over a particular piece of ground] surúsod MA- to lurch (a boat raised by a swell or suddenly taken by the current) [MDL] wadwád MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to carry a boat out to sea (the current or wind) [MDL] uwáy MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to tow a boat or raft across a stretch of water with strong currents; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to tow a boat across such an area; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use rattan or rope for towing [MDL] sirunggó' MA- or MAG- to take shelter; to seek refuge; to seek a safe harbor; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to take refuge at a particular place; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to take s/t to a place of safety or shelter: Digdí na lámang kitá sirunggó' / pasirunggó' ta' madágat Let's pull in here to shelter since the sea is rough; ... [MDL]
sárak-sárak sound made by waves striking a boat; MA- or MAG- to make such a sound (a boat passing through waves) [MDL] apwák MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to strike a boat, splashing inside (waves) [MDL] sibót MA- to get wet by the spray of a boat; MAKA- to wet those in a boat (the spray) [MDL] linggáng (PAG-)-ON to be pounded by waves (a boat) [MDL] salakáy MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to swamp a boat (waves) [MDL]
limás MAG-, -ON to bail out water; to drain water; MAG-, -AN to bail out (as a boat); to drain water from (as a bathtub); to remove the water from a dammed off area for the purpose of catching fish
timbáng MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON or MAHING-, HING--ON to right a boat by placing a weight on the raised side; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- or MAHING-, IHING- to place a weight where needed to right a boat; also hinimbáng [MDL] gápil MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to lean against the raised side of a boat in order to level it out; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to place s/t against the raised side; (fig-) to join or take sides with s/o: Gápil an bu'ót niyá ki kuyán She is on that person's side [MDL]
When a period at sea had come to an end, it was time to head into shore (takín). For smaller boats in areas without the formal facilities of a port, this could simply mean pulling a boat up on shore (dahik). How this was done was expressed by similar terms; pulling half of the boat up onto dry land, far enough so that the water and currents would not sweep it away (arád), or pulling just the prow or stern of the boat onto dry land, leaving the rest in the water (pangkó'). When boats were carrying passengers who had reached their destination, they could pull in close to shore to allow passengers to jump into the shallow waters and make their way to the beach (Tagalog, Kapampangan saka), or they could pull far enough onto the beach so that passenger could jump directly onto land and stay dry (há'on).[87]
dáhik MAG-, -ON to pull a boat up on shore; to beach a boat; to launch a boat; current usage requires the following specifications to convey the intended meaning: dahíkon paitá'as to pull a boat up on shore; dahíkon pababá' to launch a boat [MDL: dahík MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to pull a boat up on shore] arád MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to pull a boat half way up on dry land so that it will not be swept away by the current [MDL] pangkó' MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to pull either the prow or stern of a boat up on shore, leaving the rest in the water; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to pull a boat up in this way on a particular shore [+MDL] há'on MA- or MAG- to disembark; to jump onto dry land from a boat; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to help s/o off a boat (as one who is ill); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to disembark at a particular place [MDL]
lawíg MA- or MAG- to dock; to drop anchor; -ON hawser, anchor cable; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to make port for a particular reason; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to pull into a particular port; -ON: lawigón chain or cable of an anchor; -AN: lalawígan port, harbor [MDL] padpád MAG- or MAKA- or I- to be blown away by the wind [MDL: MA- or MAG- to drag anchor (a boat driven by the wind); I(PAG)- to be driven by the wind (a boat); MAKA- to blow a boat causing it to drag anchor (the wind) [MDL] sinipít MA- or MAG- to drop (an anchor, when cast); PA- an anchor [MDL] wakáwak a length of anchor cable; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to let out more of the anchor rope or chain (enabling a boat to drift further from the shore); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to let out a particular length of anchor cable; (fig-) si mawakáwak na bu'ót nin táwo a generous person [MDL] talugmatí' MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to test the rope holding an anchor, or the ropes holding a fishnet, to make sure they are firmly attached [MDL] buntóg ... [MDL: MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to throw s/t into the water, intending that it sink (as a stone); -ON: buntógon stone which serves as an anchor to keep those who search for clams in rivers from being carried downstream; (fig-) Garó akó ibinuntóg so-ba'góng natutúrog akó It was like I was dead to the world earlier when I was sleeping; nabubuntóg an aldáw exactly midday]
tiklíng MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to sail a boat into port or steer it alongside a wharf; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to sail into po rt for s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to negotiate the currents of a port, wharf [MDL] Sinipít, 'anchor', also appears in five of these languages, the exception being Kapampangan, and the more makeshift anchor comprising a stone tied to a rope to secure small boats, buntóg, is also found in Waray and Cebuano. Metal or wooden anchors are described in Waray and Cebuano as having a crosspiece (katig-katig) with a claw-like end (kagat) which catches on the seabed when lowered from a boat (Cebuano sakat). Where this piece is rounded, there is always a possibility that it could break at its curvature (Cebuano bunggo). The surface area above where the anchor has settled on the seabed is marked by a float (Tagalog, Hiligaynon pataw), a term that is recognisable as describing something that is light and generally boyant, such as that defined for Waray and Cebuano. An anchorage is not always successful, and the anchor does not always catch properly on the sea or riverbed (Tagalog taga) resulting in it being dragged as the boat is moved by the current or wind (Waray, Cebuano, Hiligaynon kamang, damas / danas). A boat may also drag its anchor simply because the anchor is not large or heavy enough for the type of boat it is meant to constrain (Cebuano lugad).[90] To embark on a boat and get ready to sail was lúnad at the time Lisboa was writing his dictionary. This specific definition relating just to boats was broadened over time to the more general modern Bikol meaning 'to ride' encompassing any kind of transport. Also relating to setting out on a voyage by sea was butáwan. When a ship had too deep a draft to pull close into shore, it would anchor off-shore in deeper water and smaller boats would ferry passengers out to the ship (Tagalog tangar) which would lower its ladders over the side to ready it for boarding (Tagalog bungsor). When it came time for launching, boats were pushed from the beach into the water just far enough out so that they would not be washed back up again (bungsód) making a scraping sound as they were dragged along the sand (karád-karád). Larger boats were launched across a series of thick bamboo poles that had a notch placed in the middle which was filled with grease. The keel of the boat was aligned with the notches and the grease allowed the vessel to slide over the poles and across the beach into the water (Kapampangan balatay) Alcina, for the eastern Visayas, describes a similar process for the launching of war boats, only this process involved a human sacrifice. A series of logs were laid out over which the boat will pass as it moves across the beach to the sea. At the final log, a man, usually a slave captured in a previous war, is tied. The boat, as it reaches its final stage before entering the sea passes over the slave and crushes him. This is said to embolden the sailors and bring them luck in capturing more people to be enslaved on their next mission.[91] Túlak is the general term for 'to push' or 'shove' and, like Bikol, Tagalog, Kapampangan and Waray make reference to the launching of a boat, specifically, pushing it away from the shore and further out into the water. For boats anchored in the harbour, leaving was the time to pull up the anchor, raise the sails, and head out to sea (Cebuano ugsod). With good weather, a calm sea, and favourable winds, a voyage can be said to have gotten off to a good start (Waray tulin).[92]
butáwan MA- or MAG- to embark on a sea voyage; to embark on a voyage by boat; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to leave on such a voyage to obtain s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to set out for a particular place; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to transport s/t on such a voyage [MDL] bungsód MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to launch s/t; to push s/t outward and forward in such a way that it won't be pushed or dragged back (such as a boat when launched in the sea); MA-, -AN: bungsorán or MAG-, PAG--AN: pagbungsorán to launch s/t in a particular place [MDL] karád-karád scraping sound of s/t large being dragged along the ground (such as a boat being launched from the beach); MA- or MAG- to make this sound; Karád-karád na That is making a loud scraping sound [MDL] lantáng MA- or MAG- to be in the water ready to sail (boats) [MDL] túlak MA- or MAG- to depart, leave (those traveling by boat); MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to pull away from shore; to leave port; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to depart for a particular reason or in order to get s/t; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to carry s/t on board for the journey [MDL] híwat MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to sail off; to pull away from land (a boat) [MDL]
Boats, after long periods of use, and even shorter periods of misuse, become old and unuseable (puká'). Extended periods at sea could have rotted the wooden boards which form its hull (Tagalog gabak), or the same wood could have been extensively damaged by the shipworm (tátod), a worm-like mollusk which bores into wood. They form burrows in the wood which they line with lime and from which they ingest food particles and oxygen from the water, also ingesting smaller amounts of wood.[94]
tátod shipworm, a worm-like marine mollusk of the genera Teredo and Bankia which bore into wood, often causing extensive damage; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to eat into the hull of a boat or wood long exposed to saltwater; -AN: tinatóran the marks left in wood eaten by shipworm; (fig-) Ati'ti' iníng si'pón kainíng áki'; garó na ing tátod How disgusting that child's runny nose is; it's as if he's been eaten by the shipworm [MDL]
hungág MA- to break (the fender-beam of a boat, the piece of wood which absorbs shock when the boat berths); MA--AN to have the fender-beam of one's boat break (the owner); syn- ngatngát [MDL]
bú'nag MA- to break up (a boat hit by large waves); MAKA- to cause a boat to break up (large waves); MA--AN to be a passenger on such a boat, or the owner [MDL] bagbág shipwrecked; MAG-, -ON to sink a boat, ship; IKA- to be lost in a storm (property, possessions); to be shipwrecked; MAKA-, MA- to be driven off course, hit by bad weather; to become shipwrecked (a boat) [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to sink the ships of one's enemies] tákas MAKA- to survive; to be safe; MAKA-, MA--AN to be safe from a particular disaster or tragedy (such as the sinking of a boat); to escape (as from being taken captive or prisoner); IKA- to be the cause of one's safety or salvation [MDL] lúnod MAG-, -ON to sink s/t; to scuttle, capsize, submerge or overturn s/t; MAKA-, MA- to sink, capsize, overturn; to get sunk, capsized, overturned [+MDL: MA- or MAG- to sink (as metal, a stone); MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to flood a boat, causing it to sink; MA- to sink (a boat and those on board); MAPA-, PA--ON to sink s/t; KA--AN: kalundán west (the direction where the sun appears to sink into the sea)] tundág sludge, sediment; MAG- to settle (sediment); also MAKAPA-, MAPA-; MAGPA-, PA--ON to let s/t settle in water; an tinundág deposits, dregs, residue, sediment, silt, sludge [MDL: MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to sink to the bottom; to settle on the bottom; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to plant s/t on the bottom (as the feet); MAPA-, PA--ON to sink s/t; to scuttle (as a boat)]
As the sailing route for most boats was close to or in sight of the coastline, it was not uncommon to encounter sandbanks and shallows which led to grounding (tahíd), the boats scraping along the sea bed over sand and rock (agad'ád). and in more extreme circumstances, being driven upon rocks causing them to break apart (gapó', Kapampangan bagbag). Sand and rocks were not the only obstacles. There were also fringing reefs that reached up near the surface on which boats could get caught when tides were low (Cebuano dangalas). Boats navigating nearer into shore could also encounter deep mud such as that associated with the ocean fringes of mangrove forests where they then become stuck (Tagalog tiktik). Nevertheless, captains take chances. If the shortest or quickest route to a particular destination is through the shallows, then that is the route they might attempt regardless of the consequences (Cebuano hamunkawas). With luck, their boat just skims the tops of the rocks lying on the seabed (Tagalog baygor), or the keel of the boat just scrapes the bottom, but does not become stuck (Waray dayhag, Cebuano ugnad). At other times they become fully stuck in the mud, on the sandy bottom, or lodged on the rocks (Cebuano digal).[98]
agad'ád the sound of a boat running aground on rocks or sand; MA- or MAG- to make such a sound (a boat) [MDL] gapó' stone, rock, boulder; MA- stony; garó gapó' stonelike; MÁGIN to turn to stone; MAG-, -ON to stone s/o or s/t; MAG-, -AN to throw stones at a particular area; gapó'-gapó' pebble, small stones [+MDL: MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to stone s/o or s/t; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to run onto rocks (a boat); MA-, MA--AN to break up on the rocks (a boat); IKA- to cause a boat to break up (rocks); KA--AN: kagapó'an stony ground; a pile of stones] There are other hidden obstacles which lie beneath the surface of the water which can also threaten the safety of a boat. If it drifts into an area of extensive fish corrals (see Chapter 19, 'Fishing,' Section 8) it could get caught on the poles which make up its structure and be unable to easily free itself (Cebuano sabinit). Or it could be holed by wooden stakes which extend from the seabed to just below the surface of the water, strong enough to counter the force of a moving boat and penetrate its hull (Hiligaynon lubot, Kapampangan tuad).[99] This endnote has all of the relevant entries in the central Philippine languages which were not included in the above discussion.[100]
Inter-island trade dominated the movement of goods in the sixteenth century Philippines, much as it does today. Goods were moved on boats across the relatively calm inland waters, suppying islands with products they did not locally have access to, and from coastal communities these would be on-traded to the upstream areas resulting in the further exchange of needed commodities (see Chapter 16, 'Towns, Trade and Travel,' Section 3). If the goods needing transport were greater than the carrying capacity of the available boats, then an attempt would be made to increase the capacity. This could not only be done by adding fronds of the nipa palm to raise the sides of the boat (see Section 3), but also by adding lengths of bamboo (talangtáng), or placing two boards on either side (balawbáw).
balawbáw two boards added to a boat to enable it to carry more cargo; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG- -AN to add such boards to a particular vessel; MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to use two boards for such a purpose [MDL]
dígal used to describe a boat which is heavily laden or one which is heavy and large, propelled by only a few rowers; MAG- to be exhausted by rowing such a boat: Nagdígal na kamí We are overcome by the labor of rowing this heavy boat; (fig-) Nagdígal na akó kainíng sakóng baba'bolon I'm exhausted by my work in cleaning the fields [MDL] tangpós MA- to be loaded from stem to stern (a boat): Natatangpós nin gumagá'od iníng sakáyan This boat is loaded with rowers from stem to stern; Natatangpós nin lúnad sagkód sa dulong The cargo is loaded up to the prow [MDL] súmong describing a boat that is loaded at the prow and raised at the stern; MA- or MAG- to be loaded in such a way (a boat) [MDL] When so much cargo needed to be transported, then every place on the boat would be filled, even to the smallest areas in the hold (Waray sigo). If the cargo was in excess of what could fit in the hold, it would be placed on the deck (Cebuano, Hiligaynon tampapaw), at times the height of the cargo rising above the sides of the boat (Hiligaynon urong). Cargo placed high in this way could be a hazzard when rough seas caused the load to shift, possibly capsizing the boat (Cebuano tungay). Cargo on the deck of a boat was placed on raised boards to keep it dry (Hiligaynon asagan) and covered for a similar purpose. The Tagalog kulumat refers in general to such covers, but samil is a specific cover woven from the fronds of the nipa palm. Clearly such overloaded boats would sit far lower in the water due to the extra weight (Cebuano labo).[103]
taríbaw MAG- to be overloaded with cargo (a boat): Nagtaríbaw na iyán sakáyan That boat is overloaded [MDL] takúbaw MAG- to be overloaded; to be carrying a great deal of cargo (a boat); to be overgrown with tall grass (the dikes or bunds of a rice field): Nagtakúbaw na iyán sakáyan That boat is carrying too much cargo; Nagtakúbaw na iníng dú'ot sa ba'sóg The grass on the bunds of the rice field is very tall [MDL]
waswás MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to jettison cargo to lighten a boat during a storm; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to lighten a boat by getting rid of cargo; MA- to be lost from a boat during a storm (cargo); to be thrown overboard during a storm; MAKA-, MA--AN to lose its cargo (a boat); to lose one's cargo or belongings in this way (a person) [MDL]
ta'gán MA- or MAG- to list to one side (a boat that is being unloaded); (fig-) Timina'gán si payó ko na tinandokán akó I feel light-headed with all of these cupping glasses on me [MDL] kádang buoyant, unloaded (a boat); -IMIN- to be buoyant (a boat); Kiminándang na iníng sakáyan This boat is buoyant (not carrying any cargo); (fig-) referring to certain positive qualitites of a person: someone with a good disposition, physically well-proportioned; Kiminándang na iníng pagkalaláki This is a well built man [MDL] rungkál MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to weigh s/t down to keep it steady (an urn or pot; a boat with ballast); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to place a weight in s/t to keep it steady (as an urn or pot which has been unevenly cast); to place s/t in a boat as ballast to keep it steady [MDL]
The diverse regions of the sixteenth century Philippines were not always at peace. Raiding parties went from one area to another to plunder goods and capture people who could be ransomed or enslaved (áyaw). These were not conflicts to enlarge territory, but to acquire wealth and labour for the fields. Such wealth could be attained by pillaging or by creating subject relationships which required the periodic payment of tribute or tax (buhís). Judging from the volume of vocabulary dedicated to weapons and protective dress, to wounding and killing, and to piracy and seaborne attacks, conflict was clearly a part of yearly life with towns prepared to play the roles of both defender and aggressor (see Chapter 1, 'War and Conflict,' for a full discussion). When individuals did not have their own boat to join in prospective raids, they would embark on the boat of another, supplying one half of the stores in return for one third of the bounty (hampíl). If everything went well, then the boat would have a successful return with its captives (ráhay).
buhís MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to pay tribute, tax; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to pay tribute or tax to s/o or to a state; -AN: bubuhísan the person or state paid tribute; PA--AN the tributary state or town; the person paying tax [MDL] hampíl MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to embark on the boat of another for the purpose of piracy (see áyaw), providing one-half of the ship's stores in return for one-third of the bounty; MAG- to set off on a mission of piracy (two people having come to such an arrangement) [MDL] ráhay MA- maráy or maraháy good, fine, great, satisfactory; all right, well; healthy; positive (as a quality); very (an intensifier) ... MAGKA- to be lucky (those who go to sea in boats to raid and are able to take their enemies captive); MAGKA-, PAGKA--AN to be lucky in this way when raiding a particular area; ... . [MDL]
binítang boat (typ- possessing barb-like protrusions at its prow resembling the head of a harpoon) [MDL] simsím a sharp point found at the prow of certain boats, used as a battering ram; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to construct such a point on the prow of particular boats [MDL]
tigpúro' a sharp point fitted into the plank (sangpád) at the prow of a boat and on which the long piece of bamboo holding the feathers called úlo-úlo is placed [MDL] úlo-úlo feathers placed at the prow of various types of boats; MAG- to carry such feathers (a boat); MA- to decorate a boat with such feathers; (fig-) Garó na nagúlo-úlo si ba'ól kaiyán kaláwit The lance is like the feathers sticking from a boat (Said when a spear or lance sticks straight up from a downed animal) [MDL] bangál a curved pole decorated with feathers and placed at the prow of a boat [MDL] bagawbáw palm fronds taken from the top of the tree and curled in particular ways, placed at the prow of boats or carried in the hand as a sign of victory in combat; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG- -ON to carry such palm fronds; MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to place such palm fronds on a particular boat [MDL] The general term for 'attack' is banggá', a term with the basic meaning of 'to crash into' or 'to bump into', clearly related to the extended meaning of 'to ram' which describes how boats would often engage in initial combat. If boats were not prepared for combat, or if they felt they were clearly outnumbered, they would try to outrun their enemies (tawás). This resulted in a chase, some of the boats attempting to escape, with others in pursuit (Hiligaynon tundog). Seeing one or more of their boats in trouble others would come to their aid (Hiligaynon sangbat). During the ensuing battle, with boats attempting first to ram each other and then trying to board, some of the boats, might take the chance to flee (Hiligaynon wislik) particularly if they felt that defeat was inevitable. The remaining boats stood the chance of being boarded by their attackers.[110] One of the ways boarding was done was to grasp the prow of the boat and hold it until others were able to make their way on board (pangót). Once boarded, the attacking boat could proceed to kill or capture the crew and passengers (lágo). Having lost his crew, the defeated captain would then initiate negotiations to arrive at a ransom price for those remaining alive (bungló). The captured crew and passengers would be shown as part of the negotiations, but would not be allowed to disembark until a final price had been agreed to (Cebuano utaw).[111]
pangót MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to fight by grasping the comb or feathers with the beak (fowl); (fig-) to grab hold of the prow of a boat in combat in order to board it [MDL] tawás MAKA-, MA--AN to run before a storm (boats); to outrun one's enemies (one boat, leaving the others behind) [MDL] lágo MAKA-, MA--AN to attack a boat, killing or taking captive the crew and passengers; MA- to be killed or taken captive (the crew and passengers of a boat) [MDL] bungló MA-, -AN or MAG-, PAG--AN to ransom one of his captured crew (the captain of a ship, boat); MA-, I- or MAG-, IPAG- to pay gold as ransom [MDL] Not all piracy had to be on the high seas. As navigation in the Philippines usually involved boats sailing close along the coast, it was possible to follow the progress of a boat from the shore, assessing its cargo and looking for an opportunity to board (ubáy). Boats that had pulled up on shore with their cargo were even more at risk, with robbery taking place even in the presence of the owner (Hiligaynon dapak). Empty boats left unattended could be gone by the time the owner returned (bugkót).[112]
bugkót MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to steal a boat; to make off with a boat [MDL]
The sea was the avenue open for communication and trade, and rivers were the connecting links from the coast to the hinterlands. Transportation was by boat, across the inland seas from one island to the other, and up and down rivers to trade, supplying commodities that coastal or upland villages did not have. The boats varied depending on how they were to be used and where they had to travel.The barángay is the most famous of these boats, having brought the original settlers to the Philippines, the name being carried over to the initial settlements established on land. There were, however, many other boats with names shared across the islands and language groups and others uniquely associated with particular areas. Smaller boats were dug out from the trunks of single trees and larger ones were constructed from planks of lightweight wood that gave the finished boat speed and agility. Tree trunks were hollowed out by adzes to create the form of dugout boats, and plank-built boats were constructed from knot-free boards that were bent to the intended shape of the hull before being pegged together at the extremities. The hull was then secured to a wooden frame and fibres from coconut husks or the sheaths of various palms sealed the seams against the sea. Not all constructions were problem free, with boards that poorly fit having to be replaced and seals that allowed the sea water to enter needing attention. Outriggers not only kept the boats steady in the water, but also provided additional seating for rowers as they extended outward from the hull, each set of outriggers potentially holding up to 20 rowers. Boats were provided with seating, some of it allocated to the captain and others of senior rank, and the whole boat was covered with a mat-like awning woven from the fronds of particular palms. Storage of the boats when not in use was in a kamálig, the Spanish translation, camarín, giving its name to the two northern-most provinces of the Bikol region. Boats were propelled by the power of the wind driven against the sails, and the thrust of oars as the rowers moved to the tempo of songs. Sails were varied and complex, as were the terms for the rigging and the wooden masts, spars and yards. Sails would be lowered before storms, or folded before strong winds, and then stored for future use once the boat came into port. Rowing had different styles depending on the condition of the sea and the required speed. Oars also varied, made from one piece or two, short for rowing from a low-sided boat, and large and long when the rower sat high, the length depending on the height of the boat above the water. Navigation was generally in sight of land, the boats following closely along the coast when sailing around nearby islands, and when moving from island to island, sighting a patch of land or watching the movement of birds or fish, or the debris seen floating on the surface of the water. Sailing close to the land meant that grounding was at some point enevitable, scraped on the sandy bottom, jarred by protruding rocks, or mired in the mud at the fringes of a mangrove forest. Storms took their toll, topling masts, ripping sails, and swamping boats with an amount of water that threatened their ability to stay afloat. Not all boats survived the violent storms that could hit the region, with some never returning to port and their crew never heard from again. At journey's end, the boats would be home or at their intended destination. Where no formal port facilities existed, boats would just be pulled up on shore, either fully or just enough to ensure that they do not wash back out again. Where formal port facilities existed, it would not be uncommon for boats to be charged an anchorage fee, and for boats that had come to trade, a levy to allow them to buy and sell. Boats carried the cargo that was needed by the island communities, and to allow a greater amount to be loaded, the sides of the boat would be built up by the woven fronds of the nipa palm or lengths of wood or bamboo. Boats were frequently overloaded, with cargo sometimes raised dangerously above the sides. Combat was common, with raiding parties from one village attacking another to plunder and take captives they would later enslave to provide needed labour. Some boats were fit out for battle, with ramrods or spikes protruding from the bow, while others could be fit with a ram to be used in battle. Decoration, generally of feathers, would adorn the boats as they went into battle, and the topmost fronds from particular palms would be waved as a sign of success. Some villages took the extra precaution of constructing small, light boats that would leave on reconnaissance missions to observe the movements of their enemies, or to plan ahead for their own attacks that would take boats unexpectedly as they moved out from their home ports. ENDNOTES [1] Juan José Noceda and Pedro de Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, 1754, Manila: Imprenta de Ramirez y Giraudier, reimpreso 1860, see sacay; Antonio Sánchez de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, 3rd edition, aumentado por Antonio Valeriano, Manila: Santos y Bermal, 1914, see sacay; Feliz de la Encarnacion, Diccionario español - bisaya, Manila: Imprenta de los amigos del pais, á cargo de M. Sanchez, 1852, see sacay; Alonso de Mentrida, Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya de la Isla de Panay, Manila: La Imprenta de D. Manuel y de Felix Dayot, 1841, see sacay; Diego Bergaño, Vocabulario de la lengua Pampanga, en romance, 1732, Manila: Imprenta de Ramirez y Giraudier, Reimpreso 1860, see sacay. [2] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bolod, tapi. [3] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see abang; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see abang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see tapi; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see tapi; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see tapi. [4] Ignacio Francisco Alzina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History of the Bisayan Islands, 1668, part 1, vol. 3; transliteration from a microfilm of the Spanish text in the Biblioteca de Palacio, Madrid, by Victor Baltazar, p. 179. [5] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bangca; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bangca; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see baloto; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see baroto; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see baloto; Mateo Sánchez, Vocabulario de la lengua Bisaya, 1617, Manila, Colegio de la Sagrada Compañia de Iesus, por Gaspar Aquino de Belen, 1711, see baloto; John U. Wolff, A Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan, Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1971, see barutu. [6] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bangca. [7] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see baloto; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see baloto. [8] Blair and Robertson, vol. 1, Historical Introduction, pp. 19-88, pp. 54-55; 'Expeditions to Borneo, Jolo and Mindanao', Francisco de Sande and others, Manila, April 19, 1578 to June 10, 1579, Blair and Robertson, vol.4, pp. 148 - 303, pp. 184-185 and Note 25; W. E. Retana, Diccionario de Filipinismos, Madrid: La Real Academia Española, 1921, see barangay. [9] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see barangay; Bergaño, Pampanga, see baranggay; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see balangay; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see balangay; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see balangay; Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, pp. 183-184. [10] Henry F, Funtecha, 'The History and Culture of Boats and Boat-building in the Western Visayas', Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, vol. 28, no. 2, 2000, pp. 111?132, pp. 112-117, JSTOR, JSTOR, accessed 1 July 2024; Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, Chapters 8-10; William Henry Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society, Anthropological Papers, No. 9, National Museum: Manila, Philippines, December 1981, pp. 15-25. [11] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see biray, biroc, tondaan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see biray, bidoc, tondaan / tondaun; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see biday, bidoc, tondaan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see biray, biroc, tondaun; Bergaño, Pampanga, see biray, biruc, tunda; John, A. Crawfurd, Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language, 2 vols., London: Smith, Elder and Company, 1852, see biduk; William, A. Marsden, Dictionary of the Malayan language, London: Cox and Baylis, 1812, see biduk; Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Tim Penyusun Kamus, Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1990, see biduk. [12] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see adiong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see adyong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see aryong; Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia see jung; 'Djong,' Wikipedia, English , n.d., (accessed 12 February 2024). [13] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see dauong; Bergaño, Pampanga, see daung; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see yahong, boyong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see yahong. [14] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see lapid; Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, p. 182, see balasia. [15] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see damolas, tapac; Bergaño, Pampanga, see damulas, tapac; Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship, p. 17. [16] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see panga, biniray; Bergaño, Pampanga, see pang-ga; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pangga; Retana, Diccionario de Filipinismos, see panga. [17] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bilos; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bilos; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bilos. [18] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see damlog, yaya, doyan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see damlog, yaya, duyan. [19] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see parao; Crawfurd, see prau; Marsden, see prau; Retana, Diccionario de Filipinismos, see parao. [20] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see binta; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see binta; 'Vinta,' Wikipedia, English , n.d., (accessed 10 May 2024); Manuel Buzeta y Felipe Bravo, Diccionario geográfico, estadístico, histórico de las Islas Filipinas, Madrid: Imprenta de José C. de la Peña, 1850-1851, p. 134; Copia digital, Valladolid: Junta de Castilla y León, Consejería de Cultura y Turismo, 2009-2010, Diccionario Geográfico. [21] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pilang; 'Pelang,' Wikipedia, English, n.d., (accessed 10 May 2024). [22] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see pangco; Don Emilio Bernáldez, Resena historica de la guerra al sur de Filipinas sostenida por las armas espanolas contra los piratas de aquel archipielago: desde la conquista hasta nuestros dias, Madrid: Imprenta del Memorial de Ingenieros, 1857, pp. 42-43, Google Books; Retana Diccionario de Filipismos, see panco. [23] Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, p.187; Marsden, see kura-kura; Colección de Documentos Inéditos Relativos al Descubrimiento, Conquista y Organización de las Antiguas Posesiones Españolas de Ultramar. Tomo 3, De Las Islas Filipinas, II, 'Relacion mui circunstanciada de lo ocurrido en el Real y Campo de la Isla de Zubu de las Islas Philipinas desde 1.ş de Junio de 1565', p. 225, Relacion ; Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas, ó 'Mis Viajes por este País', extensamente anotada por W.E. Retana, Madrid, 1893, vol. 1, Appendix G, see Embarcaciones; Retana, Diccionario de Filipinismos, see caracoa. [24] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see galola, lamo, londay, malo, minayoc, sasangan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bangcuas, dalapang, dulapang, guilalo, sagpao; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see aydon, balo, bolang, dalamas, daya, lampitao, loyac, paloa, panagatan, sampan, singcoong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see luyac, sampan, sap-ia, tinimbao / tiningbao(an), toar. [25] E. E. Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines: Their Preparation and Uses, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 14, Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1916, p. 167. [26] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see babha. [27] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see locob, bilbid; Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship, p. 21. [28] Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship, pp. 17-18. [29] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see daras; Bergaño, Pampanga, see daras; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bingcong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bingcong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bingcong, lauug. [30] Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, p. 177. [31] Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship, p. 18. [32] Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 157-158. [33] Schneider, Commercial Woods of the Philippines, pp. 77-79. [34] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see agad, agad agad; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see laol, tamboco, agad, songcat; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see agar, hunung, laol, tambuco. [35] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see baloc, balao; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see baroc, balao; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see baloc, balao. [36] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see lotang; Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship, p. 18. [37] Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, pp. 181-182; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see saam. [38] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see opac, dalopi (listed only in the Spanish-Tagalog Index); Bergaño, Pampanga, see upac; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see opac, dalopi; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see opac, dagpac, dalopi; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see opac, dagpac, dalopi, talogbascog. [39] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see ayad, tapi, talapi, cacas; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see tapi, talapi, cascas; talapi, tapi. [40] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see timbao, padcot, talaghot; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see salaghot; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see timbao. [41] Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship, p. 20. [42] Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship, p. 16. [43] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sagod; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sagud; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sagor; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see lonas, pacaya; Bergaño, Pampanga, see lunas (defined as quila only in the Index); Philipine Boat-building Culture, (accessed 9 June 2024). [44] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see douong, huli; Bergaño, Pampanga, see mulin, sumanga; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see dolong, ulin; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see dolong, olin; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see dolong, olin. [45] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see hasang. [46] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see oguit; Bergaño, Pampanga, see uguit; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see baisalan; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bansalan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bansalan. [47] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see calicol, caling (only in the 1754 edition), pamalic, pilis, sorlong; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see caling; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see caling, boto boto, otin otin, de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see caling, bonggo. [48] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see ganghal, ngathal, ataata, tibias, quindang, ognad; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see cauang, habil habil; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see douongan. [49] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see apola, samno; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see rumbo; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see baladbad, capan, lapac, lombo, ong-ag; ; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see dapac, lombo, gamat, ungcag. [50] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see catig; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see catig; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see catig; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see catig; Bergaño, Pampanga, see catig. [51] Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, p. 175; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see sanib. [52] Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, pp. 168-169; Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship, pp. 24-25. [53] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see batangan, dalambaan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see batangan, daramba, tadic; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see batangan, baui, dalamba, tadic; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see batangan, daramba, dalana, kili kili, sangit, taclu, taric. [54] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see carang, loca / longcas, palosi, panambil, totob; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see cayang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see cayang; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see cayang, copcop, leplep; Bergaño, Pampanga, see carang; Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, pp. 172-173. [55] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see cacas, catcat, dalap. [56] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see palantayan, papag, talicol, toay, tomoay; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see quigaran, rouang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see dapog, loang; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see langcapan; Bergaño, Pampanga, see lunday. [57] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see camalig; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see camalig; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see camalig; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see camalig. [58] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see layag, palayagan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see layag, layagun, lison, sagudan; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bahayan, langcob, laoog, layag, lison, pac-oang, pactad, polayagan, soclay, sogodan, taladoc; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see hilay, lantay, lauug, laquelaque, layag, palayagan, tolaroc; Bergaño, Pampanga, see layag, salisul. [59] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see hugac / hugut, vulug vulug; 'Spar,' Wikipedia, English, n.d., (accessed 10 August 2024). [60] 'Yard' Oxford Reference: Overview: Yard; Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bahoan, biloc, liboin, sondong / songdong, Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bancaran, biloc; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see baliting, bangcalan, biloc, pangapo, sondong, de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bangcalan, biloc, sangcol, sondong; 'Bowline', Royal Museums Greenwich, (accessed 23 August 2024). [61 Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bilobilo, bognos, buhi, coliauo / culiyao, panindi; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see banting, bilo bilo, bohi bohi, bugnos / bugnoson; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see banting, bilo bilo, bognoson, botong botong, oay oay; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bilo bilo, bognos, buhi buhi, Bergaño, Pampanga, see bugnos; 'Sheet,' Wikipedia, English , n.d., (accessed 10 August 2024). [62] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see sampac; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bancad; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bocalang, loblob, olat, quilas, tong-gang; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bangcal, bucalung, olat / ulat, tampioc. [63] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see tambacolon; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see garabay, pilicpilic; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see coyap coyap, dalabay, galabay, sogot; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see aguinir, dalabay, sogot. [64] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see poliagan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see cuyabcuyab; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see palic palic, panondoc; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sagahir. 'Block,' Wikipedia, English , n.d., (accessed 20 August 2024). [65] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see banting; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see landac, homon, tabo tabo; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see landac; 'Reefing,' Wikipedia, English , n.d., (accessed 20 August 2024). [66] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see lobag, locso, tagostos, touac; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bacacad, butaric, caguis-an / guisi, logmo; yosot; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bodot, cabong cabong, catcat, cotong cotong, gabay, hagocon, locas, locot, logmoc, sangcol; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see batac, butung, cayab cayab / cuyub cuyub, hagucun, lolos, lucas, sag-oli / saoli, vayvay; Bergaño, Pampanga, see ognas. [67] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see balibar, panagal, panolot, piyoc, salangsang / salongsong, sogor, somang, songsong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see balihas, songsong, tipioc; 'Point of Sail,' Wikipedia, English , n.d., (accessed 25 August 2024); 'How to Trim a Sail,' Rubicon Adventure, n.d., (accessed 25 August 2024). [68] Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, pp. 184-185. [69] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gaor, saguan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bancarian sin gaod, gaod; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gamat, ganolan, gaod, gipac, langangan; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see gaor / gaod, langangan; Bergaño, Pampanga, see gaur. [70] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gayong; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see gayong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gayong; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see gayang; Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, pp. 185-186. [71] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see borobutcon, bugsay, colod, solipad, tampong; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see ambilong, bogsay, palid; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see bugsay; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bagsay. [72] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bugaut, sulangot; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see solangot; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sulangot; Bergaño, Pampanga, see gadgad. [73] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see baliga, labod, palabol; Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sangcap. [74] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see pingi; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see lio lio, pingi; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see toang. [75] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see poyon, quigalan, de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see habay, tahang. [76] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see qiua; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see hadao, hili; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya, see sayup; Bergaño, Pampanga, see caual, sabagal. [77] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bagclus, balaguit, bulang saguan, damba; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bungcaris, cabit, capay capay, cau cau, sabang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see boto, cabig, capay, langpas, limpoat, lotoc, oyayod, sagaysay, sicad, sic-oay; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see capay, lamba, pool, sagaysay, sibug. [78] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see douit, haual / houal, liborlibor (1754); de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see habay. [79] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see ragabrab; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see holacdol, sabal; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see hantos, sacdol; Bergaño, Pampanga, see alpoc, laguak, sinquil. [80] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see talocor, tiquim, tocon; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see tocon; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see tocon; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see tucun / tocun / tocor, so'al; Bergaño, Pampanga, see atcan, singuil, sapul. [81] Scott, Boat Building and Seamanship, p. 26. [82] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see baliohag, saoang; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see bangbang, bungalos, lapagap, tacas; Bergaño, Pampanga, see lurang. [83] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bagat, batas, baybay, baybayon, bingbing, horong, iraya, lampig, libyoc, pangalobaybay, sabang, siquil, suba, tangin, tauir, toboc; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see dalag, dalodo, guibuang, lauod, panabang; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see balabas, balantang, batao batao, hamguid, latas, lioag, laoang laoang, lomba, oacog, oaling, pilio, sagidsid, salisip, socob, solang, sol-at, taboc, tagal, ylauod; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see balic, guiboang, langpas, laot, lapao, luao, lauur, lunuy, ongcal, sibir, tagal, tahap, tarung, toon, tumbalic, ung ung, valing / uaring; Bergaño, Pampanga, see palambang, suling, vasang. [84] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see limas; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see limas; Bergaño, Pampanga, see limas. [85] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see kibang. [86] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see ahot, alos, bagasbas, baguisbis, balasbas, buyo bunto, canlog, catong-catong, dagsa, dalahay, daloyion, dangpil, gamao, gibang, inabay, lantao, limas, lingac, lohab, otao, sagalsal, saguac, saloc, talactac, talog, tampol, tangol, tibiog; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see canduang, dalon, ganoy, hubas, lapia, limas, litong litong, lud-lud, pouat, quia quia, quindang, sacáy, tonda, tion; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see ab-ab, amoc, andoloy, anod, bolcas, bonayag, codal codal, dagsa. dangop, tobig, gantong, dapia, habay, hilig, hocandol, lanas, laoan laoan, lapat, lapi lapi, ligid, limbo, linggang, lotao, noy noy, honda, oay, palinpin, pidpid, pilpil, quia quia, sabal, salimbong, salopang, sobol, solosod, soab, songgab, tahaid, tama, tandaid, tibhong, tiquiaob, tobig, tolin, tonao, tongcayab; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see agui, amuc, balabag, dagon, dagsa, dapia / tapia, kia / quia, linggang, lotos, ouay, sabar, salimbong / salibong, sampay, sangbut, sangga, tapoac, toac toac, tumbac, untar, utao; Bergaño, Pampanga, see acquio, baltang, biluc, bunggo, canlong, limas, linggang, linggui, padpad, paling, putal, sabang, sampiad, suba, sumang, tauid, tubung, unda, undoc. [87] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see saca; Bergaño, Pampanga, see saca. [88] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gagat, honos, sambat; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see gaga. [89] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see aoyl; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see auil, sauang; Bergaño, Pampanga, see laug. [90] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bonggo, doong, lauig, patao, sinipit, taga; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bontog / bongtog, cagat, camang, catig catig, damas, doong, lauigan, logad, patao, sinipit; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bontog, cagat, camang, catig catig, damas, doong, laoig, patao, sacat, sinipit; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see camang, danas / dalasdas. doong, lauig, patao, sinipit; Bergaño, Pampanga, see dung. [91] Alcina, The Muñoz Text of Alzina's History, part 1, vol. 3, p. 177. [92] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bongsor, tangar, tolac; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see tulac, tulin; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see ogsod; Bergaño, Pampanga, see balatay, tulac. [93] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bantil, cabag, dahic, dangan, danglag, hinagpit, hiuat, lalos, sagarsar / sarsar, saui, tali; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see bat-ao, sácay, salacay; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see angcal, bilanggo, bonca, botoc, canhiling, donggo, hababa, hampil, ponong, sacay, sombalic, talicol, ticmo, tomod; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see bunca, laran, lugar, ngipon, payan payan, sambo-ang, sob sob, tolor, vayvay; Bergaño, Pampanga, see alubebay, atiab, becut, canlong, sadsad, sapul, tulus, vala. [94] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gabac; 'Shipworm,' Britannica, (accessed 26 September 2024). [95] 'Boat Fenders and Bumpers', (accessed 26 September 2024). [96] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see bungcag. [97] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see amoyor, ouay; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see polang; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see gunda, polang. [98] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see baygor 1754, tictic; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see dayhag; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see dangalas, digal, hamoncaoas, ognad; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bagbag. [99] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see siqi; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see digal, losong, sabinit; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see bililug, bungcag, lubot; Bergaño, Pampanga, see tuad. [100] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see gaong, ginla, ilo, lagaslas, lotos, potar, sayar, talicuacas; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see ongot, sampig; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see apal, lonod, mala, ot-ot, padal, sagacsac, tapya, tocbol; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see ana-ana, bugtas, cadalcadal, culul, daguldul, hucandol / hulacdol, lonor, sangia / hangia, sanglar, taguimtim, tagustus, ticuang, tocbol, yaub; Bergaño, Pampanga, see dabulbul, dalirul, lansag, lingal, sanglad, sayad, tambiloc, vatac. [101] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see bogsoc, ignar. [102] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see hinacay; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see sacay. [103] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see colomat, samil; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see sigo; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see labo, tampapao, tongay; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see asagan, orong, tampapao. [104] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see balansang (1754), taponlulan; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see dagdag; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gacan, toang, sagoc-al; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see bungcal, cancan. [105] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bongcad, hooad, sabyag, salimoad; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see hupit, sabiag. [106] Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see hanting; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see gabay, hacbit, lanting; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see gabay, Bergaño, Pampanga, see tunda. [107] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see batau, laoy, oad oad, tiguib, timbang, de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see hatao, siquiaong, siquisig, siot, togob; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see aguinir, gamo, hanip, loang, lolan, nagubuub, sagio, sarang / sadang, sambug, siuil, siut; Bergaño, Pampanga, see asna, quiling, tindi. [108] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see laca. [109] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see naga, oloolo, sombo; Sánchez de la Rosa, Sámar y Leyte, see tongol; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see songbol; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see songbol; Bergaño, Pampanga, see naga. [110] de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see tondog, sangbat, vislic. [111] de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see otao. [112] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see ogsor; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see dongtol, langpas, lapitao, ogsod; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see dapac, dongtol, ogsor, so-so. [113] Noceda and de Sanlucar, Tagala, see banga, boloran, tocatoca; de la Encarnacion, Bisaya, see bangal, bangga; de Mentrida, Bisaya, Hiliguena y Haraya see bangga, salacay, sangar, talocatic; Bergaño, Pampanga, see bangga, punggul, sampung. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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