OVERVIEW
Examined here are the terms for war and conflict which were still known and used at the turn of the sixteenth century in the Bikol region of the Philippines leading to some general conclusions about this aspect of society. Included is a discussion of weapon types, varieties of battle dress, techniques of tracking, spying and keeping guard, types of combat and strategies for doing battle on both sea and land, customs of taking and ransoming captives as well as tribute relationships. Where relevant, mention is made of any semantic change which has occurred when comparison is made with modern usage [1].
Examined first are the weapons in common use at the time. These include firearms, pointed weapons such as spears, lances and harpoons, bladed weapons such as knives, swords and bolos, and bows and arrows. Also included are terms referring to the care of weapons and those which describe people carrying such weapons. Next is an examination of protective clothing and terms for wounding and dying. A section is set aside to look at piracy and general attacks by sea. This is followed by a look at terms for defensive and offensive operations and an examination of terms for taking and ransoming captives.
As might be expected in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the weapons referred to least were the firearms. Nevertheless, there are some references (see Chapter 17, 'Hunting and Trapping,' Section 1 for a full discussion). Badíl referred specifically to a musket or matchlock gun. It was also the general term for pieces of artillery. The modern meaning is 'gun' with various loan words taking over the role of more specific firearms. These guns were loaded with bullets referred to as pungló, a word which has been replaced in modern Bikol by the Spanish loan, bála.
No specific word was found in Lisboa for loading a gun. Modern Bikol has adapted the term bahóg which in both old and modern Bikol means 'to feed'. The firing of the gun was accomplished by lighting the powder, either directly with a flame, or by first lighting a fuse, referred to as subsób in old Bikol. This specific meaning has been lost in modern Bikol, the term now meaning simply 'to sear' or 'to singe'.
badíl gun, shotgun; piece of artillery; MAG‑, ‑ON to shoot s/t or s/o with a gun; MAKA‑, MA‑ to get shot; MANG‑ to go hunting with a gun; PARA‑: parabádil or parapamádil shooter, hunter; badíl-bádil toy gun [+MDL: musket, matchlock gun; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to shoot s/t with a gun]
pungló bullet, cannonball; ammunition [MDL]
bahóg feed; MAG‑, ‑ON to feed animals; MAG‑, I‑ to give a particular type of feed to animals; ‑AN: bahógan feeding trough [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to feed animals; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use s/t as food for animals]
bahóg MAG‑, ‑ON to load a gun or revolver; to place an arrow in a bow preparatory to shooting; to bend a bow
subsób MAG‑, ‑AN to sear or singe s/t [MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to light a fuse (such as that of a matchlock gun); to set light to s/t (such as the powder of a shotgun); MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use s/t for lighting (a matchstick, fuse)]
Far more common were the pointed weapons such as the spear and lance; the bladed weapons such as the knife, sword and bolo; and the bow and arrow.
The general term for hand armaments, as well as protective clothing, was hamó, and this in its verbal form meant to prepare for combat by arming oneself both with the proper weapons, and the appropriate protective clothing. These weapons could be brandished or waved about (kiwál-kiwál). The meaning 'to brandish' in modern Bikol is expressed by wasíwas which is not found in Lisboa.
hamó referring to various offensive and defensive weapons, such as swords and lances, and protective clothing such as helmets, tunics and jackets; MAG‑ to prepare o/s with such weapons or protective clothing; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to prepare particular arms or protective clothing; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to give particular arms or protective clothing to s/o; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to arm or prepare s/o in this way; ‑AN: hamohán armed in this way (a person) [MDL]
kiwál-kiwál MA‑ or MAG‑ to brandish a weapon; Kiwál-kiwál na si kuyán That person is brandishing his weapon; Kiwál-kiwál na iyán hamó ni kuyán The hand armament of that fellow is really being waved about; MANG‑ to brandish weapons (many people); Nangiwál-kiwál na iyán mga táwo That group of people is brandishing its weapons; (fig‑) MA‑ to move about (referring to the movement of the feet when one dives head-first into the water); Nakiwál-kiwál pakaráy si bitís niyá His feet are really moving about [MDL]
The way arms were carried could also be referred to by specific terms. Gumgóm referred to two or three weapons, probably spears or lances, carried in a closed hand. The carrying of a knife in the same hand as a larger weapon such as a lance or spear was referred to as lagtíp.
gumgóm referring to two or three arms, sticks or similar objects which are carried in the closed hand; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to carry s/t in this way [MDL]
lagtíp referring to a knife carried in the hand with a larger weapon such as a lance or spear; MAG‑ to carry two such weapons in this way, one large and one small; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to carry the larger weapon; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to place the smaller weapon in the hand with the larger one; (fig‑) Daˈí máyoˈ akóng lagtíp na buˈót saímo I have nothing to hide from you [MDL]
A weapon could be particularly well suited to the person carrying it. Tanám referred to such a weapon which may have been adorned, fashioned or balanced in such a way to suit an individual's personal taste. In like manner a weapon could be somewhat ill-suited to a person. The term báwal described the encumbering of a short person who carried long weapons, such as a lance or spear, into battle.
tanám MA‑ describing a well-made or nicely adorned weapon that is particularly well suited to the person using it; MA‑ or MAG‑ to become more suitable (a weapon, due to personalizing touches such as decoration, rebalancing, polishing and hewing) [MDL]
báwal referring to long weapons such as a spear or lance carried by a small person; MA‑‑AN to be encumbered by carrying such weapons (a small person); MAKA‑ to encumber s/o in this way (long weapons) [MDL]
The sound of metal or steel armaments hitting against one another was referred to as haragtíng.
haragtíng clinking sound of metal or steel armaments hitting one another; MA‑ or MAG‑ to make such a sound (metal or steel weapons or armaments); MAPA‑, PA‑‑ON to cause weapons or armaments to make such a sound [MDL]
Turning to the pointed weapons, the kaláwit is specifically mentioned as used both in hunting and combat. Of the spears and lances we have the garód, the tumbák (referred to as buntalíˈan in verse) and the sugób, this last made completely from the wood of the bahíˈ palm (Livistonia, rotundifolia), a wood also used for fashioning arrowheads, or from bamboo.
kalawít harpoon; spear or lance (typ- possessing two barbs, used in hunting or in combat); MA- or MAG- to use such a weapon; MA-, -ON or MAG-, PAG--ON to injure or spear s/t or s/o with such a weapon [MDL]
garód spear; MAG‑, ‑ON to spear s/o or s/t [MDL: a dagger (baladáw) placed on a shaft, resulting in a weapon resembling a spear; MA‑ or MAG‑ to use this type of weapon for killing or wounding]
tumbák lance; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to spear s/o with a lance; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to spear a particular part of the body; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to throw a lance [MDL]
buntalíˈan lance, used in narratives and verse in place of tumbák [MDL]
sugób weapon (typ‑ resembling a lance or spear made totally from the wood of the bahíˈ palm, from bamboo or other similar material, except for the head); MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to wound s/o with such a weapon; (fig‑) Nagsugób kang iyán May you be speared (Said as a curse) [MDL]
bahíˈ palm (typ-, possessing a hardwood made into pegs used in the construction of boats and other structures, and the shafts of spears and arrows); Livistonia rotundifolia [MDL]
Some insight into the construction of weapons may be seen from the following terms. The head of the weapon was prepared with a split or opening called bungbóngan. The specific term used for positioning this opening onto the shaft was sulpót, and the narrowed part of the shaft which fit into the head, sulpótan, formed from the same root.
bungbóng ‑AN: bungbóngan a slit or opening in a tool or weapon into which the shaft is inserted; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to make such a slit or opening [MDL]
sulpót MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to position the opening in the head of a tool or weapon onto a shaft; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to fit a shaft with the head of a tool or weapon ‑AN: sulpótan the narrowed part of a shaft or handle which fits into the opening in a tool or weapon [MDL]
Specific terms also refer to the use of spears and lances. When launched from a high vantage point aimed at something below, the term is bungsád. When a spear is used to stab someone from beneath the house, through the slats of a bamboo-type floor, the specific term is bighóˈ. To lunge at someone repeatedly without letting the spear leave the hand is duldóg. This last term has lost its military-type meaning in modern Bikol and has come to mean simply 'to poke' or 'to jab'. To stab someone forcefully with a spear or knife was called dugmák. The aftermath of a battle in which a large number or arrows or spears have been used and remain lying about also has a specific term. This is rasók.
bungsád MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to throw a stick or a weapon such as a spear or lance from a high vantage point at s/t below; MA‑, ‑AN: bungsarán or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN: pagbungsarán to attack s/o or throw s/t at s/o from high up [MDL]
bighóˈ MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to stab, wound or poke s/o with a lance or spear from beneath the house [MDL]
duldóg MAG‑, ‑ON to poke or jab s/t [MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to spear s/o without releasing the spear from the hand; to lunge at s/o with a spear; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use a spear in this way; ‑AN shaft of a spear, lance]
dugmák MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to stab s/o forcefully with a knife, spear [MDL]
rasók referring to a large number of arrows, spears or lances thrown or found in a particular area; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to shoot a large number of arrows or throw a large number of spears or lances; Garó na ipinagrasók an dakól na tambák It's as if very many spears have been thrown [MDL]
Of the bladed weapons, the term sundáng was the general term for knives. This has in modern Bikol become a specific term for a type of bolo. The tabák is also referred to by Lisboa as a type of knife which may also be used as a weapon. Again, the modern definition is a type of bolo. A bolo referred to in anger during Lisboa's time was called puspós.
sundáng bolo, machete [MDL: a knife (general term); any instrument used for cutting; suró-sundáng small knife or one made from wood or bamboo]
tabák bolo, machete [MDL: knife (typ‑, also used as a weapon)]
puspós bolo, used only in anger in place of uták; Hintáˈ iyán puspós Give me that bolo [MDL]
Other specific knives were the baladáw and kiwód, defined as a daggers, and the tupá. This last was a knife which had been reworked or refashioned from iron or steel previously used for another purpose. For knives with just one cutting edge, the duller back part was called súlaw. The point of bladed weapons and the cutting edge of knives was, and still is, called sudsód.
baladáw dagger (typ‑); MAG‑ or ‑ON to be armed with a dagger; to be carrying a dagger; MA‑, ‑AN to arm s/o with a dagger; MA‑, I‑ to place a dagger in s/o's waistband; MANG‑, PANG‑‑ON to kill s/o with a dagger [MDL]
kiwód dagger (typ‑ with a wavy blade); also ‑ON: kiniwód and kiwód-kiwód [MDL]
tupá referring to a knife which has been reworked or refashioned from iron or steel; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to rework iron or steel into a knife or tool [MDL]
súlaw the back part of a knife blade which is not fashioned to a sharp cutting edge, but is kept dull; MAG‑, ‑AN to file down the back edge of knife so that it remains dull [MDL]
sudsód the point of a bladed weapon; the cutting edge of a knife, plow or other bladed implement; plowshare; the tip (as of a finger); MAG‑, ‑AN to sharpen s/t to a point or a fine edge [+MDL: MA‑, ‑AN: sudsorán or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN: pagsudsorán to sharpen a tool, blade or weapon to a point or fine edge]
Of the larger bladed weapons we have the báˈid, defined as a short and wide cutlass, and the káris, from the Malay keris. For literary reference in narratives and verse báˈid is referred as salabay.
báˈid cutlass (typ‑ knife, short, wide); MANG‑, PANG‑‑ON to cut s/t with a cutlass; MANG‑, PANG‑‑AN to cut s/t off from s/t with a cutlass [MDL]
salabay cutlass, used only in narratives and verse in place of báˈid (Note: salabay is listed only as part of the entry for báˈid and is not a separate entry in Lisboa) [MDL]
káris sword; MAG‑ to carry a sword; to duel; to fight with swords (two people); MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to wound s/o with a sword; to arm o/s with a sword; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to arm s/o with a sword [MALAY keris] [MDL]
The main weapon of the time was the bow and arrow (also see Chapter 17, 'Hunting and Trapping,' Section 3). Entries in Lisboa deal with specific terms for the components of bows and arrows, the positioning and aiming of the weapon and the types of trajectories taken by an arrow. The general term for the bow was búsog, a term readily recognisable in modern Bikol. A related term, buság, was assigned a rather special meaning, referring to the shooting at whites with arrows by the Negritos.
búsog bow (for shooting arrows) [+MDL]
buság MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to shoot at white people with arrows (Negritos); MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to shoot arrows [MDL]
A large bow, said to require it be held in place by the feet when attaching the string, was called sikaróm. The bow string was, and is still, called dulós, although modern speakers would think first of the guitar string rather than the bow string.
sikaróm bow (typ‑ for shooting arrows; very large, requiring it be held in place by the feet when attaching the string) [MDL]
dulós guitar string, string for a bow; MAG‑, ‑AN to string a bow or a guitar; MAG‑, I‑ to use s/t as a guitar or bow string [+MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to string a bow, as for a violin or a bow and arrow; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use s/t as a bow string]
The general term for an 'arrowhead' is pánaˈ. In modern Bikol this tends to refer to both the bow and the arrow. There are also more specific terms for arrows. The pagsík is made from the wood of the bahíˈ palm (also used in the construction of spears), and the sarapóng was one constructed with three or more barbs. This last could also serve as a spearhead.
pánaˈ bow and arrow; arrow; MAG‑, ‑ON to shoot s/t with a bow and arrow; MAG‑, I‑ to use s/t as an arrow; MANG‑, PANG‑‑ON to hunt s/t with a bow and arrow; ‑AN: paranaˈán archery; PARA‑ archer; PAG‑: pagpánaˈ or pagpanáˈ-pánaˈ archery; lalaˈgán nin pánaˈ quiver; panáˈ-pánaˈ a dart [+MDL: arrow; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to shoot s/t with an arrow; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to shoot an arrow]
pagsík arrowhead (typ‑ made from wood of the bahíˈ palm and not steel); MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to place such an arrowhead on a shaft; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to affix such an arrowhead [MDL]
sarapóng arrowhead or spearhead with three or more barbs; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to make such an arrowhead; (fig‑) Kasarapongáng pútik mo iyán What a lie that is [MDL]
It might have also been common for the shaft and head to be one unitary piece. An entry such as túnod, defined as the noun, 'shaft of an arrow', also has the verbal meaning 'to be struck by an arrow'. One reference to the shaft of an arrow which is a separate component from the head is palsó, and this has an opening into which the arrowhead is inserted. Inserting the arrow into the shaft appears to be the common way of joining the two, while in the construction of spears and lances it was the shaft which was inserted into the head. The terms bungbóngan and sulpót were referred to earlier in this section. An iron arrowhead placed at the end of a bamboo shaft was dungpíl and the feathers on the shaft of an arrow were called panglád.
túnod shaft of an arrow; MA‑ to be struck by an arrow; MAKA‑ to strike s/t (an arrow) [MDL]
palsó referring to the shaft of an arrow which contains an opening into which the arrowhead is placed [MDL]
dungpíl an iron arrowhead which is placed at the end of a bamboo shaft [MDL]
panglád the feathers on the shaft of an arrow; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to place feathers on the shaft of an arrow; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to put such feathers into place; ‑AN: an pinangládan an arrow with feathers [MDL]
The actual use of the bow and arrow was also described by a number of specific terms. The placing of an arrow into the bow in preparation for shooting was termed supít. The term adóˈ referred to the aiming of the weapon, and the center point used for sighting the prey was called sukód. When the string was pulled back on a regular bow, or locked into position on a crossbow, this was referred to as híngat.
supít MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to place an arrow in a bow in preparation for shooting; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to load a bow with an arrow [MDL]
adóˈ MAPA‑, PA‑‑ON or MAGPA‑, PAGPA‑‑ON / MAPA‑, IPA or MAGPA‑, IPAGPA‑ to aim a weapon; MAPA‑, PA‑‑AN or MAGPA‑, PAGPA‑‑AN to aim a weapon at a particular target [MDL]
sukód the center-point of a bow or crossbow, used for taking aim; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to measure or calibrate the center- point of a bow or crossbow; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use s/t for such calibration [MDL]
híngat MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to prepare for shooting (as by pulling back the string of a bow or locking the string of a crossbow into position; and by extension: cocking the trigger of a gun; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PA‑‑AN to threaten s/o by preparing to fire; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to load a weapon in preparation for firing [MDL]
The most widely used term for shooting with a bow and arrow was, and remains, pánaˈ, introduced above for the meaning 'arrow'. There were, however more specific terms which have since fallen into disuse. Two terms referred to a high, arching arrow shot. Of these, tábang appears to have been the more neutral. Talubkás referred to the more gentle and silent release of a high‑trajectory shot. The inadvertent discharge of an arrow had the special term of gubkás. An arrow, as well as spears and voices, which carried for a long distance was referred to by the term lagtóng. Arrows could also be released from a bamboo tower called bantára' constructed specifically for this purpose.
tábang MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to shoot at s/t with the high, arching shot of an arrow; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to shoot an arrow in this way [MDL]
talubkás referring to the gentle arching of an arrow shot high into the air; MA‑ or MAG‑ to be released quietly and gently (an arrow from a bow); MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to shoot at s/t with such a shot; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to release an arrow in this way; MAKA‑, IKA‑ to accidentally release an arrow; (fig‑) to let s/t slip, as an unwanted word or phrase [MDL]
gubkás MA‑ or MAG‑ to discharge; to inadvertently fire (a bow); to accidentally spring (a snare, trap); MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to misfire or discharge a bow; to inadvertently set off a snare or trap; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to misfire or discharge a bow at s/o or st/; to catch s/t (a snare when it accidentally springs); (fig‑) Pagkagubkasán iyán úlay mo Go on, finish saying what you have in mind [MDL]
lagtóng MA‑ referring to things that are carried, hurled or shot for long distances, such as arrows, or a voice that can be heard far away; Abubóng lagtóng na pánaˈ The arrow has been shot a very long way; Makurí an pagkalagtóng kan tíngog ni kuyán The sound of his voice reaches a long way off [MDL]
bantára' (arc‑) bamboo tower used by archers in battle [MDL]
A few specific terms have been found to refer to the care of weapons. These are in addition to the common terms for cleaning, washing, sanding, etc. Two related terms referred to the cleaning of rust or dirt off arms by rubbing with an abrasive such as iron filings. These terms were hínis and hishís. This last term retains only the meaning 'to brush the teeth' in modern Bikol. Rust could also be removed by soaking a weapon in coconut water for two to three days. The term for this was lúˈob. Old and worn out weapons were referred to as gúro.
hínis MAG‑, ‑AN to brush the teeth; MAG‑, ‑ON to clean the teeth of food particles [+MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to clean the teeth; to clean weapons by rubbing off rust or dirt with an abrasive such as iron fillings; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to remove particles of food when cleaning the teeth; to remove rust or dirt when cleaning weapons; MANG‑ to clean weapons in this way on a regular basis]
hishís MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to clean arms, tools, the teeth; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to clean arms or tools of rust, dirt; to clean the teeth of food particles, stains [MDL]
lúˈob MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to soak a weapon (such as the dagger, baladáw) in coconut water for two to three days to remove rust; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to place a weapon in coconut water [MDL]
gúro old and worn (tools, arms or implements of steel); MA‑ to become old and worn; PAGKA‑: an pagkagúro the wearing out of tools, arms [MDL]
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2.
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SHIELDS AND PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
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Lisboa makes reference to quite a number of shields used in Bikol for protection in battle. The general term for 'shield' was suliyáw. Other terms were more specific, based on either size or composition. A medium or large shield was called gawgáwan. A shield made from rope that could possibly be slipped over the arm and carried like a buckler was called pakilí. A round or oval leather shield was the kalásag. This is the only term which survives into modern Bikol, although it has come to mean 'shield' in general with no sense of the materials originally used to construct it. In song or verse a large shield was referred to as pinóngan.
suliyáw shield (general term) [MDL]
gawgáwan shield (typ‑ medium or large) [MDL]
kilí PA‑ buckler, shield (typ‑ made from rope and used in battle to protect the body from injury); MAGPA‑ to wear such a buckler; MAPA‑ to arm s/o with a such a buckler [MDL]
kalásag shield; MAG‑, ‑ON to shield a blow; to ward off a strike; MAG‑, ‑AN to shield s/o; MANG‑ to defend o/s with a shield [+MDL: a round or oval leather shield; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to use such a shield; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to defend s/o with such a shield]
pinóng ‑AN: pinóngan shield (typ‑ large, used only in song and verse) [MDL]
The general term for both protective clothing and various offensive and defensive weapons was hamó (see Section 1). There were also very specific terms. To protect the head, a helmet-like head-covering, called pungpóng or lukdó was worn. To protect the body one could wear a battle jacket (magtagiktík). For more protection there was a garment comprising a breastplate and backplate called barútiˈ. A term which Lisboa enters as being archaic even in the early seventeenth century was the karáy. This was either a breastplate or backplate made from horn, probably the horn of the water buffalo.
pungpóng helmet, head covering used in battle; syn- lukdó [MDL]
magtagiktík jacket (typ‑ used to protect one from injury during battle) [MDL]
barútiˈ jacket consisting of a breastplate and backplate, worn in time of battle; battlejacket; MAG‑ to be dressed in such a jacket; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to put on such a jacket; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to dress s/o in such a jacket [MDL]
karáy (arc‑) breastplate or backplate made of horn, used in combat; MAG‑ to wear such a breastplate or backplate; MA‑ to dress s/o in such a breastplate [MDL]
A shirt-like garment made from the hide of the water buffalo was the ampís and a thick quilted tunic used to protect the full body was the luˈók. A term of exaggeration used to describe someone wearing the luˈok was bakulkól. We might assume from this that the garment was large enough to look somewhat out of place when worn by particular people.
ampís a skirt-like garment made from water buffalo hide and worn during battle; MAG‑ to wear such a garment; MA‑ to dress s/o in such a garment [MDL]
luˈók (arc‑) a type of thick, quilted tunic used to protect the body in combat [MDL]
bakulkól a term of exaggeration used to describe s/o wearing a thick, quilted tunic used in combat called luˈók; MAG‑ to refer to s/o with this term: Nagbakulkól na si kuyán That person is really weighted down with his luˈók [MDL]
The general term for wounding is lúgad and this, except for some morphological changes in the use of affixes, remains in modern Bikol. There are also more specific terms for wounding which may or may not be associated with conflict.
lúgad a wound; MAG‑, ‑AN to wound or injure s/o; MAKA‑, MA‑‑AN to get wounded, injured [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to wound s/o; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to wound a particular part of the body; MA‑ to become wounded; MA‑‑AN to develop a wound or sore (the body); MAKA‑ to cause a wound; KA‑‑AN: kalugádan a wound; KA‑‑AN + ‑NON: kalugadánon or ‑ON: lugádon the wounded]
To inflict a wound on oneself with a knife or weapon is unóy. In modern Bikol unóy refers to a splinter or sliver of metal or glass, and the verbal forms refer to being pierced by such an object.
unóy MAGKA‑, IPAGKA‑ to wound o/s with one's own knife or weapon; MAGKA‑, PAGKA‑‑AN to wound o/s on a particular part of the body; Makurí an pagkaunóy ko kaidtóng sakúyaˈ man sanáng sundáng I wounded myself terribly with my very own knife [MDL]
Two terms which refer to wounds inflicted on others with a knife or bolo are tigbás and tagáˈ. Of these tigbás is more specific to an attack with such a weapon. Tagáˈ is the more general term for slashing and hacking, although it, too, may refer to wounding when the bolo is used as a weapon. Traces of blood which remained on a bladed weapon after one has been wounded were referred to as arís.
tagáˈ a cut, gash; MAG‑, ‑ON to cut, gash or slash s/o or s/t; to lacerate or mutilate s/o; to hack s/t with a bolo or knife; MAG‑, ‑AN to cut or gash a particular part of the body; MAKA‑, MA‑ to get cut, gashed, slashed [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON to cut or wound s/o with a knife or ax; MA‑, ‑AN to cut a particular part of the body; MAG‑ to cut o/s; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to inflict many cuts or wounds]
tigbás MAG‑, ‑ON to cut or slash s/t or s/o with a bolo; MAG‑, ‑AN to cut s/t from a larger piece; to wound s/o with a bolo [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON to cut or slash s/o with a knife; MAG‑ to cut o/s with a knife; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to open many wounds; to repeatedly cut or slash s/o]
arís referring to traces of blood which remain on a knife or other weapon after one has been wounded; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to leave traces or stains of blood on a weapon (blood) [MDL]
A superficial wound which just grazes the skin, or just removes the outer layer of skin was called pílas while a deeply penetrating wound, such as that caused by a spear or arrow was ratóm. The sound such a weapon makes in penetrating the body was referred to as tagasóp. When such a wound was enlarged so as to remove the head of the weapon, the term used was hihíˈ.
pílas MAKA‑, MA‑‑AN to wound one's opponent by striking them with a bladed weapon that just grazes the skin; MAKA‑, MA‑ to remove part of the skin in this type of attack [MDL
ratóm MA‑ to be deep (a wound); MAKA‑ to inflict a deep, penetrating wound (weapons); MA‑‑AN to be deeply wounded (a person) [MDL]
tagasóp the sound of a weapon penetrating the body; the sound of the lips during a firm kiss; MAG‑ to make this sound [+MDL: MA‑ or MAG‑ to make this sound]
hihíˈ MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to enlarge a wound in order to remove a lance or harpoon [MDL]
There were also specific terms which referred to arrow wounds. A superficial wound caused by an arrow which penetrates but does not remain lodged in the flesh was referred to as laˈgót. One that remains in the flesh and is not immediately removed is tiwátiw. The term actually refers to the person or animal still carrying the unremoved arrow. It also refers to spear wounds.
laˈgót a superficial wound caused by an arrow which does not remain lodged in the flesh; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to wound s/o in this way (an arrow) [MDL]
tiwátiw describing a human or animal pierced by a spear or arrow, and still carrying the weapon in the body; MAG‑ to be wounded in this way; Nagtiwátiw na si kuyán kaiyán tumbák That person is still walking about with the spear that wounded him [MDL]
The general term for one wounded in battle is ráˈrong. When one survives a serious wounding, this is referred to by haból. If one is able to dodge a blow to avoid injury, this was called kikinhól.
ráˈrong MA‑ to be wounded in battle; MA‑‑AN to have a wounded comrade (the others who are fighting); MAKA‑ to wound s/o in battle (arms, or the person fighting); (fig‑) Naráˈrong kang iyán May you be injured or killed (Said as a curse) [MDL]
haból MA‑ to survive a wounding; to not die after being wounded [MDL]
kikinhól MA‑ or MAG‑ to dodge a blow or a weapon to avoid injury; to flinch; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to move a particular part of the body away to avoid injury from a weapon or blow; Daˈí nakikinhól na kaldítan si kuyán That person doesn't flinch when incisions are made for drawing blood (Said when one is so sick as to be impervious to pain) [MDL]
The general term for killing or dying is gadán.
gadán corpse, the deceased; gadán na dead; MAG‑, ‑ON to kill or slay s/o; to assassinate, execute or murder s/o; MAKA‑ deadly, fatal, lethal; malignant; MA‑ to die, pass away, perish; to succumb; MA‑‑AN to be bereaved; to have a death in the family; KA‑‑AN death, demise; PAGKA‑ the death of, the killing of [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON to kill s/o; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to kill an animal; Nagadán idtóng ákiˈ ko, daˈíng síring si buˈót ko I have never felt so bad as after the death of my child; (fig‑) Si gadán na matúrog si kuyán That fellow sleeps very soundly (like a dead person); MAKA‑: makakagadán or makagagadán deadly, fatal; MA‑‑ON: magagadánon mortal; MA‑: magadán may I die, on my life; an oath taken where one utters these words; MAMA‑, MAMA‑‑AN or MAGMA‑, PAGMA‑‑AN to take such an oath]
More specifically, a death in combat is referred to as sámad. The death of one's leader which occurs before others in the group have been killed has the specific reference, púti.
sámad MA‑ to die in war or combat; MA‑‑AN to die in a particular place; IKA‑ to bring about s/o's death in combat; Nasámad nang iyán That person has died in combat [MDL]
púti MA‑ to be killed first (the captain of a boat or leader of a group of fighters); MA‑‑AN to have one's captain or leader killed first [MDL]
Body ornamentation is examined in detail in Chapter 8, 'Jewellery and Body Ornamentation,'). Relevant here, however, is an entry such as the following which indicates that specific types of bodily ornament were associated with specific feats in one's lifetime. Judging from the entry sibóng there can be no doubt that there was a strict code as to who could and could not carry specific types of tattoos.
sibóng a belief that one who has tattooed his body without first having defeated anyone in combat will fall ill or die; (PAG‑)‑ON to fall ill for this reason [MDL]
Terms relating to boats and navigation figure prominently in the Lisboa dictionary, as do specific terms referring to piracy. Coastal towns were particularly susceptible to the depredations of piracy as raiders could attack and plunder (áyaw), and then sail back out to sea. One raid could be followed by another (sugsóg), if not by the same group, then by a different one, until life in such a communities eventually became unbearable (also see Chapter 16, 'Towns, Trade and Travel,' Section 1(iii)).
áyaw MANG-, PANG--ON or MAGPANG-, PAGPANG--ON to engage in piracy; to rob, pillage or plunder towns along the coast; MANG-, PANG--AN or MAGPANG-, PAGPANG--AN to attack or raid coastal towns; MANG-, IPANG- or MAGPANG-, IPAGPANG- to carry particular arms in raiding coastal towns [MDL]
sugsóg MA‑ describing s/t or s/o that continually causes harm or destruction in a particular area (as a wild boar entering rice fields, pirates raiding a town or robbers returning over and over again to a particular area): Masugsóg ka nang labí, álang-álang kang daˈí masalagbát You continually cause terrible trouble; it's not right that you have not yet been given a taste of your own medicine (Meaning: You have not yet also been robbed or victimized); MA‑ or MAG‑ to continually or repeatedly cause harm or destruction in a particular place [MDL]
Boats which set out for such purposes could be camouflaged in particular ways. One such type of camouflage, hagbóng, was with leaves or fronds which were used to make raiding boats less visible.
hagbóng referring to leaves or fronds used to camouflage the boats of pirates; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to camouflage pirate boats with such leaves; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use leaves or fronds for such a purpose [MDL]
A boat could go out alone for the purpose of robbing or stealing (mungsád). Additionally, special agreements could be reached to share the expenses, and the spoils, of a piracy mission. Hampíl referred to one such agreement in which a person without access to a boat embarked on the boat of another, providing half of the ship's stores in return for one third of the stolen bounty.
mungsád a single boat that is taken out to steal or rob; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to steal s/t (those in a single boat); MA‑, ‑AN: mungsarán or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN: pagmungsarán to steal from s/o or some place when going out in just one boat [MDL]
hampíl MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to embark on the boat of another for the purpose of piracy (see áyaw), providing one-half of the ship's stores in return for one-third of the bounty; MAG‑ to set off on a mission of piracy (two people having come to such an arrangement) [MDL]
There were two general terms for embarkation on a boat during Lisboa's time. One of these is the term still in common use today, sakáy. The other is a related term, salákay. Associated with this last term during Lisboa's time was a secondary meaning 'to disembark for purpose of raiding a particular area'. It appears as if this secondary meaning gradually became dominant, coming to mean 'to attack or assail (as during a raid)' as a general term, and no longer referring to a specific attack from the sea. This is its current meaning.
sakáy a fluvial procession; MAG‑, ‑AN to ride on a boat; to board a boat; to navigate a boat; MAG‑, I‑ to place s/t on a boat for transportation; NAKA‑: an nakasakáy a boat passenger; ‑AN boat [+MDL: MA‑ to embark; to set out to sea in a boat; MA‑, ‑ON to embark on the boat of another; to travel by boat for a particular reason; MA‑, ‑AN to set sail on a particular boat; MA‑, I‑ to take s/t with you on a journey; MAG‑ to set sail; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to navigate a particular boat; to head for a particular location; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to take a boat out for a particular reason; MANG‑, PANG‑‑ON to book passage (as with the owner of a boat); MANG‑, PANG‑‑AN to set out to sea on the boat of another]
sakáy rowers; KA‑ passengers on a boat; Sakáy kamó mga kasakáy The passengers are also the rowers; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to choose rowers; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to choose rowers for a particular boat [MDL]
salákay MAG‑, ‑ON to attack, assault or assail s/o (as during a raid); PAG‑ attack, offense, onslaught; ... [MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to swamp a boat (waves)]
salákay MA‑ or MAG‑ to embark; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to embark on a particular boat; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to embark with particular cargo (as supplies, goods); MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to embark for the purpose of getting s/t or bringing s/t back; to disembark for the purpose of raiding a particular area; Bubuhíˈon tang daˈí masalákay iyán banwáˈan na iyán We can't pass up the chance to raid that town [MDL]
One of the terms referring to boats in conflict was banggáˈ. This was in addition to the general meaning 'to crash', 'bump' or 'run into'. In modern Bikol it is only the general meaning which survives. A boat could also be attacked for the purpose of killing the crew or passengers or taking them captive (lágo, also see Section 6).
banggáˈ MA‑ ... SA to bump into s/t; to crash or run into s/t; MAG‑, ‑AN to deliberately bang into, bump into, crash into, hit, knock or ram s/t; MAKA‑, MA‑‑AN to be in a crash; to get bumped into or get rammed; MAGKA‑ to end up in a collision; to accidentally collide with one another; MAG‑‑AN to collide with one another; to bump into each other; PAG‑‑AN collision, crash; impact [+MDL: MA‑, I‑ to attack using a particular boat, ship; MA‑, ‑AN to attack or ram a particular boat, ship; MAG‑‑AN to attack one another (two ships or many attacking each other); MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to bring two ships together in battle; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to meet other ships in battle; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use particular ships in battle]
lágo MAKA‑, MA‑‑AN to attack a boat, killing or taking captive the crew and passengers; MA‑ to be killed or taken captive (the crew and passengers of a boat) [MDL]
A boat returning from a victorious mission could be welcomed back to the community by the concurrent sounding of a conch shell or trumpet together with the ringing of the bells (síbag). A boat returning victorious from combat, whether defensive or offensive, might be decorated with the leaves from the top of a palm which are placed at the prow of the boat. Alternatively, these leaves could be held in the hand. These leaves were called bagawbáw.
síbag MA‑ to sound a horn (hamudyóng) or trumpet together with the striking of gongs (mungmóngan) as a sign of joy at the good luck of those who have returned from pirating; MA‑, I‑ to sound one instrument with the other; MA‑, ‑AN to join the sounding of one instrument with the other; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to sound both instruments together; MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑AN to sound one instrument first; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to follow the sounding of the first instrument by the second [MDL]
bagawbáw palm fronds taken from the top of the tree and curled in particular ways, placed at the prow of boats or carried in the hand as a sign of victory in combat; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to carry such palm fronds; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to place such palm fronds on a particular boat [MDL]
One of the ways a town could be warned of impending attack was with the sounding of a conch shell, a horn (probably water buffalo) or a piece of bamboo specifically cut for this purpose. These were referred to by the term hamudyóng. In both modern Bikol and the Bikol of the early seventeenth century, this was a general term and could be used to warn of various types of danger. Lisboa, however, records this as once being used specifically during a time of war.
hamudyóng conch shell, horn [MDL: a horn or specially cut piece of bamboo sounded as a signal or warning, used formerly in wars; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to sound a horn; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to alert or warn a particular area or people by sounding a horn or cut section of bamboo; (fig‑) Muda pa iníng banwá'; garó na naghamudyóng What terrible weather; it is as if someone has sounded the hamudyóng (referring to the roaring of the wind of a great storm)]
It is difficult to know what type of protection could be taken by a town threatened by attack. There are very few references to fortifications. One term, borrowed from Malay, is kúta referring to the fortifications that surrounded a town or city. How many towns were protected in this way, it is hard to say.
kútaˈ a fortification or enclosure surrounding a town or city; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to construct such a fortification; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to construct such a fortification around a city or town [MALAY kuta] [MDL]
A town could keep guard or vigil against an invading force. Bantáy is the term for such for a guard. The watchtower or any place of vigil was the bantáyan built on the same root. While the muˈóg had a military function in a number of areas of the Philippines, this does not seem to be the case in the Bikol region. Whether the platforms constructed in the upper reaches of tree ever served a military function was not specified by Lisboa (also see Chapter 14, 'Construction and Infrastructure,' Section 4(i)). Another term, one which could relate to both defensive and offensive operations, was awiˈáw. This meant to reconnoiter or spy on, or generally to be vigilant in watching for someone who might be expected.
bantáy attendant, guard, sentinel, watchman; MAG‑, ‑AN to guard s/t; MANG‑‑AN, PANG‑‑AN to keep watch over s/t; to keep vigil; ‑AN citadel, lookout, outpost, watchtower; PAG‑ the watch, vigil; PARA‑ guard, watchman; ... [+MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to guard s/t; to keep watch over s/t]
muˈóg platforms built in the upper reaches of trees [+MDL mú'og: tree house] [BIK MYT: a house for the worship of the aníto built either in the branches of a tree or in the open field]
awiˈáw MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to reconnoiter; to spy on one's enemies; to keep watch from the roadside or window for one who is expected [MDL]
Military conflict was not always inevitable. Before relations deteriorated between two groups or individuals, always carrying the potential for a wider hostilities, an attempt would be made to hold or secure the peace A go-between could be sent to one's potential enemies to restore a friendship (kágon) or if the problem was due to individual conflict, an attempt would be made to rectify that situation (háwak).
kágon MAG‑, ‑AN to act as a go-between for s/o (as to settle an argument, to arrange a marriage); PARA‑ a go-between, negotiator [+MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to act as negotiator in procuring a woman for concubinage or marriage, or in discussions with enemies to cement a friendship]
háwak MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to reconcile or make peace between two people who have quarreled [MDL]
When attack came, a town could stand and meet the assault (tugkód). Opposing forces could also align themselves face to face, waiting for a signal to launch an attack (tunób). Alternatively, one group could flee. The general term for this was dulág, although a much more colourful term, used figuratively for this type of response, was apirís. This referred to fleeing, like locusts, in the face of a greater force.
tugkód MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to resist the attack of one's enemies without fear; to stand firm in an attack from one's enemies; MA‑, ‑AN: tugkorán or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN: pagtugkorán to protect one's town [MDL]
tunób MA‑ or MAG‑ to stand face to face waiting for the signal to attack (two groups of enemies or warring factions); (fig‑) Anó taˈ minatunób ka dihán? Why are you standing there without moving? [MDL]
dulág MAG‑ to escape, flee, run away; to elope; magdulág sa responsabilidád to shirk duties, avoid responsibility; MAG‑, I‑ to abscond with s/t; to run off or away with s/t; to abduct or kidnap s/o; to evade s/t (as a question); MAG‑, ‑AN to escape or run away from s/o or s/t; to elude or dodge s/o or s/t; PAG‑: pagdudulág escape; elopement; ‑AN a place to run or escape to; daˈíng dulágan no place to run to, no chance to escape, no getaway; durulágan stampede; MAG‑ to stampede [+MDL: MA‑ or MAG‑ to escape, flee; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to escape or flee from s/o or from a particular place; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to run off or escape with s/t] also see kadlagán
apirís MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to carry refuse away from a field by boat; to lead locusts away from cultivated fields to a narrow area where they can be killed and used as fish bait; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use a boat for carrying refuse from a field; (fig‑) ‑ON to flee like locusts in the face of a greater force: Garó sindá inapirís It is as if they fled like locusts; Garó kamó apirisón kon dumtóng idtóng maísog You'll probably flee like locusts when a stronger force arrives [MDL]
What strategy could be used by an attacking force? Certainly one of the most effective was a surprise attack when the enemy was least expecting it (awáˈaw). Even more effective to catch one's enemies unaware was to mount an attack at night, for those sleeping would be easy prey and those newly awakened would offer only limited resistence (táˈop).
awáˈaw MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to attack one's enemies when they least expect it; to unexpectedly mount a surprise attack against one's enemies; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use particular weapons in such an attack [MDL]
táˈop MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to attack one's enemies at night to catch them while sleeping or otherwise unaware; to hunt game at night with nets, waiting in a location where game usually pass; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to attack one's enemies in a particular area or hunt game at a particular place [MDL]
Strategy could also apply to offensive formations. A type of pincer movement in which two flanks gradually closed in on an enemy was called tíkop. The military meaning of this has been lost in modern Bikol and it simply means 'to bring two ends together', such as one might do when joining two ends of a piece of rope to form a loop.
tíkop MAG‑ to meet (two ends, as of a circle); MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to bring two ends together; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to enclose s/t by bringing two ends together [+MDL: a flank or group of people who gather together to form an open circle for purposes of battle or to catch s/t; MAG‑ to join together (both flanks); MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to join one flank with another; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to go into this formation in a particular area or for a particular reason; MA‑, ‑AN to join a second flank or group of people (the first flank or group)]
A great variety of terms dealt with attack or assault. I have chosen to look at these terms in two groups, those dealing with what might be called small scale attacks on individuals, and then those dealing with large scale attacks on towns or communities. Many of the terms presented in the section on attacks on the individual need not refer specifically to battle. Many could also refer to instances of general social conflict.
Just as we could have surprise attacks on a community during battle, so could there be surprise attacks on the individual. One such attack, gabáˈ, could be physical, or a sudden act of betrayal. A stronger word referring to betrayal or treachery ending in death was límo and an attack resulting in death perpetrated along a deserted stretch of road as líbon.
gabáˈ MA‑, ‑AN: gaˈbán or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN: paggaˈbán to attack or set upon s/o without warning in order to kill or capture them; to betray s/o, luring them into an ambush; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use particular arms or weapons in such an attack; (fig‑) Garó na kitá ginaˈbán It's like we have been set upon (Said when one is terror-struck or filled with fear) [MDL]
límo MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to kill by treachery or betrayal; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to leave a family mourning the loss of a relative killed through treachery or betrayal [MDL]
líbon MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to attack and kill s/o along a deserted stretch of road; to steal chickens, pigs; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to carry out an attack along a particular stretch of road; to steal s/o's pigs, chickens; PARA‑ highwayman; robber of pigs, chickens [MDL]
A more general term for attack was tángas. Related both morphologically and semantically, talangás was a broader term and could refer to attacks by both humans and animals. Daphág could also refer to both animal or human attacks.
tángas MA‑, ‑ON to attack or assault s/o; MA‑, I‑ to use a particular weapon in an attack or assault; MAG‑ to attack or assault one another (two people or many); MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use weapons in such an attack [MDL]
talangás MA‑, ‑ON to attack or assault s/o (an enemy; a dog or other animal attacking a person); MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to attack one another (enemies); to attack people (a number of animals) [MDL]
daphág MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to attack s/o (a crocodile, another animal); to attack s/o (a person in order to get s/t or to take s/o prisoner) [MDL]
Once involved in a struggle, the actual reversal of one's fortune, from the position of underdog to that of victor, or more specifically the movement from a position underneath, to a position on top, was called balukád. There are numerous other terms as well which refer to the actual physical struggle between two opponents.
balukád MA‑ or MAG‑ to extricate o/s from a position underneath to a position above (two people fighting); to change from being the underdog to being the victor; to move from a position of defeat to a position of victory; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to defeat s/o in this way; to move s/o from a superior position to an inferior one; also MAKA‑, MA‑; (fig‑) to make a comeback and win in an argument or dispute: Nasusiˈán na siyá so-bagó, nakakabalukád na lámang. Kabaró-balukád mong magtarám (You were) able to persuade her earlier with your counter arguments. How convincing you are when speaking [MDL]
An attack on an individual could also be joined by others (suróg). This term still means 'to defend' or 'to protect'. A more neutral term, based on the root for the number 'three', tuló, meant simply 'to take the side of one of two people having a dispute'.
suróg MAG‑, ‑ON to defend or protect s/o; to stick up for s/o; to speak up for s/o; to favor s/o; to back s/o up; to uphold s/t; PARA‑ protector, defender; advocate; KA‑ ward; PAG‑ protection, defense; pagsuróg sa sadíri self-defense [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON to aid s/o in a struggle; to take s/o's side in a legal case; to favor s/o in a fight; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to favor one person over another; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to fight over s/t where one is favored or aided over another; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to choose one as a favorite to aid in a fight against another; MANG‑, PANG‑‑ON to aid or defend s/o who has done no wrong; (fig‑) Ipinagsusuróg ko lámang sa pagtuklós iníng didikít na pároy This little bit of rice is all I have to keep me going in my work]
tuló MA‑, ‑AN to join two people who are having a dispute, taking the side of one of them; MA‑, I‑ to use a particular weapon in such a dispute [MDL]
Individual or group action could also be taken to stand up for one's beliefs or rights. This term was, and still remains, túmang. The individual involved in such a protest is now referred to as tumangéro, the combination of a Bikol verb with a Spanish agentive ending. An individual act of revenge on someone who has been the cause of their punishment or pain was referred to by the term timamlós.
túmang MAG‑, ‑AN to fight against someone older or stronger; to rebel or rise up against s/o; to stand up to s/o; to mutiny against s/o; MAG‑, I‑ to stand up for s/t; to fight for s/t [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MA‑, ‑AN to stand up to s/o; to fight or oppose s/o; to take vengeance out on s/o; MA‑, I‑ to fight for s/t; to avenge s/t; MAG‑ to oppose one another in a fight for one's rights; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to struggle against many people; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to struggle against many people; to stand up for one's rights]
tumangéro a rebel, renegade, mutineer [BIKOL túmang, with a SP‑ agentive ending]
timamlós MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to take revenge on s/o who has been the cause of your punishment or pain (as when a prisoner is whipped, and when released, whips those who accused him); MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use s/t to carry out your revenge (such as a lash or whip) [MDL]
There were a number of words which could be used to goad people into fighting. Of these, balabág specifically reproached someone for being a coward during a time of war.
balabág MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to call someone a coward, reproaching them in this way during a time of war; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to say s/t when accusing s/o of being a coward [MDL]
There were other terms which could lead to general social conflict as they could succeed in badgering someone in physical action. Tangád referred to discrediting or demeaning someone in their presence, inflammatory in a society that valued discretion and the avoidance of personal confrontation. Similar terms were tatamóˈ and duhágiˈ, this last one having changed in modern Bikol, really being assigned a more physical, and biblical meaning, 'to smite' or 'to scourge'. Not all disparagement had to be face to face to cause offence. It could also be done behind a person's back (búgiˈ), although in small, village societies it would not be long before it was carried to the intended subject.
tangád MA‑, ‑ON to belittle, demean, discredit or disgrace s/o, speaking ill of them in their presence; MA‑, I‑ to say s/t to demean s/o; MAG‑ to exchange insults, demeaning one another; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to exchange insults with one another; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to say s/t to one another in an exchange of insults [MDL]
tatamóˈ MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to reprove or censure s/o; to find fault with s/o; to give s/o a talking to; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to censure s/o for some mistake or error; MA‑ one who censures s/o in this way; fault-finding; Abóng tatamóˈ mo You're always finding fault [MDL]
duhágiˈ MAG‑, ‑ON to smite, scourge [MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to insult, discredit or disgrace s/o; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to say s/t to insult, discredit or disgrace s/o]
búgiˈ MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to backbite, libel or slander s/o; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to say s/t libelous; MA‑ or MAKI‑‑ON: makikibugíˈon backbiter, slanderer, libeler [MDL]
Large scale conflict refers to a general state of war involving whole towns or areas. When setting out on such a mission of combat, gongs could be sounded, referred to as líhos. A distinction was also made between fighting one's enemies on land, referred to as lúsad, and the various terms used to fight at sea (see Section 4). The modern meaning of lúsad is simply to disembark, which might have also been one of its central meanings during Lisboa's time. Transportation to an area was by sea. The combatants would, however, then have to disembark at their destination to fight on land.
líhos MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to sound gongs in a particular way when going into combat [MDL]
lúsad MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to fight on land with one's enemies (not at sea); MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to fight one's enemies in a particular area; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use particular weapons in this type of battle [MDL]
lúsad MAG‑, ‑AN to disembark; to come ashore; to get off (as from a bus)
The general term for the attack on one's enemies on their own territory was dúngas and the reciprocal term, in which one's enemies attack an opponent's town, was dalásaˈ. Also on the offensive side was súrong, where one group searches out one's enemies at a known location. This term had a number of meanings, including to search someone out for a fight or, more specifically, to search someone out so as to have a cockfight. It is only the meaning relating to cockfights which survives.
dúngas MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to attack one's enemies on their own territory or in their own town; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to attack the town or territory of one's enemies; MA, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use particular weapons in such an attack [MDL]
dalása MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to march on a particular town or people (one's enemies); MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to arrive at a particular location (one's enemies); MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to carry particular arms in such an advance [MDL]
súrong MAG‑ to fight (birds, animals); MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to entice a cock or rooster to fight; MAG‑, ‑AN to attack, fight (one rooster against another) [+MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to search for one's enemies at a known location; to search out s/o for the purpose of having a cockfight; to look for s/o to fight with, play with; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to carry arms in a search for one's enemies; to bring a cock to fight; (fig‑) to look for a man (a woman): Masiwáwa na iyóng masúrong an babáyi sa laláki There is something not quite right about a woman who goes in search of a man]
There must have been major regional conflicts involving the populations of entire towns which erupted from time to time. Whole districts could be conquered or subdued, gúbat, or simply overrun and subjugated, dángin.
gúbat MA‑, ‑ON to conquer or subdue a particular people; MA‑, ‑AN to conquer a particular place; MANG‑ to embark on a war of conquest; MANG‑, PANG‑‑ON to go from town to town, attacking and conquering the inhabitants [MDL]
dángin MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to defeat, conquer or subdue s/o; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to defeat some of those in a group; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use particular weapons in such a defeat [MDL]
The result of such attacks could be the complete annihilation of one's enemies (sapóˈ). This appears to have been a term of assault, the result of an attack launched on another community. A more defensive term referring to the driving off or killing of one's enemies, was hagbóˈ. Here reference was more to freeing one's community from enemy attack. The exact context of a term such as dáhog, 'to shout at those defeated', is unclear, but judging from its figurative use, it probably meant to shout at those one has defeated so as to drive them away. This is morphologically related to the general entry for loss and defeat, daˈóg introduced later in this section.
sapóˈ MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to completely annihilate one's enemies; to kill all of one's enemies; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to wipe out a whole community; MA‑ to be completely wiped out, killed or annihilated (by war, disease, famine); to die (a whole community)[MDL]
hagbóˈ MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to kill or drive off all of one's enemies; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to free a place of one's enemies after killing or driving them off; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use particular arms in such a struggle [MDL]
dáhog MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to shout at those who have been defeated; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to shout s/t at the defeated; (fig‑) Harí nindó pagdahogá iníng sakóng manók; maráˈot kon dumlág Don't shout at my fighting cock; it won't be good if it runs away [MDL]
What happened to towns that had been defeated? Besides the physical retribution which might have been meted out against the surviving inhabitants, the town was often sacked and items of value brought back to one's own community. Lisboa records the term samsám as 'the spoils of war' and the verbal forms 'to loot', 'pillage' or 'plunder'. In modern Bikol we no longer have a military meaning associated with this term, but a general meaning indicating the accumulation of wealth by somewhat ruthless means.
samsám MAG‑, ‑ON to accumulate wealth by somewhat ruthless means; to grab money or land; to poach s/t; to commandeer; to seize or confiscate s/t [MDL: booty, the spoils of war; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to steal s/t during a time of war; to loot, pillage or plunder; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to steal or plunder from s/o or from a particular place]
In contrast to this, however, the modern meaning of salákat is 'to loot', 'pillage' or 'plunder', whereas in Lisboa's time it meant to enter someone's house for some criminal purpose. The set of morphologically related words, sakát and salákat, both historically and presently, mean 'to go up' or 'to climb'. To enter a house in Lisboa's time referred to going up into a house raised on posts or stilts.
salákat MAG‑, ‑ON to loot, pillage or plunder; to despoil s/t; to rifle through s/t; PARA‑ bandit, looter, outlaw [MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to enter s/o's house to pick a quarrel, steal or for other criminal purposes; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to pick a quarrel with s/o; to go to steal s/t from s/o's house; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to carry arms in such a robbery attempt]
sakát MAG‑ to go upstairs; to climb; MAG‑, ‑ON to ascend, climb, mount or scale s/t; to go up s/t; to board or embark on a vehicle; MAG‑, I‑ to take s/t upstairs [+MDL: MA‑ or MAG‑ to enter a house (going up the ladder or steps); to visit a house; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to climb up s/t; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to climb up for s/t; Hírak saímo, garó ka siminakát sa daˈíng táwo I pity you, it's as if you're visiting when no one is home (Said when a guest has not been properly entertained)]
If we come back briefly to the troops in the field, these could be relieved by reinforcements during a long battle. These troops were called buntólan.
buntólan relief troops, soldiers who are standing by to go into battle, relieving soldiers who are currently fighting [MDL]
In addition to the specific terms for fighting and defeat, there are two general terms which remain widely used. Lában is the term for opposition and fighting, and daˈóg the term for loss and defeat.
lában opposing; lában sa versus, opposite to; daˈíng lában no contest; a sure loser, the underdog; MA‑‑UMIN‑: maluminában belligerent, defiant; MAG‑ to fight with one another; to feud, clash; to enter into combat; MAG‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, ‑AN to fight or go into combat against s/o; MAG‑, I‑ to set s/o in opposition to another; to place s/o into combat; MAGPA‑ incompatible; MAKI‑, PAKI‑‑AN or MA+KA‑ or KA‑‑ON to fight s/o; to be at odds with; MA‑‑AN to overcome or surmount s/t; daˈí malabánan insurmountable; KA‑ adversary, foe, opponent; contestant; ‑AN: ralában battle, combat, fight, feud; dagáng ralában battleground, battlefield; magpundóng ralában to cease fire; pagpundóng ralában a cease fire [+MDL: MAG‑ to fight or go to war (two towns, two warring factions); MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to fight in a particular location (two towns, warring factions); MA‑, ‑ON or MA‑, ‑AN to attack (one town attacking another); KA‑ warrior, fighter; (fig‑) MA‑ malában nin úlay to exchange words, argue]
daˈóg beaten, defeated; lost: Daˈóg mo akó You've beaten me; MAG‑, ‑ON to beat, defeat or get the better of s/o; to outwit; to overcome, overpower or overwhelm s/o; to rout, trounce; to compensate for s/t: Nagaádal akó taˈ ngáning magdaˈóg akó kan sakóng kaluyáhan I'm studying to compensate for my weaknesses; MAG‑, ‑AN to vie for s/t; to outwit or defeat (a group or team after defeat of individual members); MAG‑‑AN to compete or vie with one another; MAKA‑, MA‑ to be defeated, beaten; to lose; MAKA‑, MA‑‑AN to lose s/t (as a bet on a game); an nadaˈogán losses (as in gambling); MANG‑: an mananaˈóg the victor, winner; ‑AN daraˈógan loss, defeat, rout; KA‑‑AN kadaˈogán losses (as in gambling); PAKIKIPAG‑‑AN: pakikipagdaraˈógan competition; KAG‑ one who wins everything; garó kagdaˈóg s/o who acts like they can defeat everyone (said as an insult); segurádong daˈóg a sure loser; a sure loss; no contest; gána an daˈóg any game in which the winner is declared the loser, usually applied to checkers; daˈóg-dáˈog badly beaten, thrashed, trounced [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to defeat s/o in a fight, a war; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to gain victory over a particular area; (PAG‑)‑AN to suffer a defeat (those who remain after other members in the group have been defeated); (fig‑) MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to praise s/o (used ironically); MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to say s/t ironic in praise of s/o; MA‑ one who jests or jokes in this way]
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6.
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CAPTIVES, SUBJUGATION AND TRIBUTE
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In this final section we will look briefly at terms referring to captives and tribute relationships. A person captured by highwaymen or pirates was referred to as sabó and those taken hostage during a war or raid as bíhag. Any ordinary prisoner was binibilanggóˈ (see bilanggóˈ). While bíhag still remains in use in modern Bikol, the others terms have disappeared, replaced by Spanish loans.
sabó a person captured by highwaymen or pirates [MDL]
bíhag captive, hostage; MAG‑, ‑ON to capture s/o (as during a war or raid); to take s/o hostage; MAKA‑, MA‑ to be taken or held captive or hostage [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to capture s/o; (PAG‑)‑AN to have a relative held captive]
bilanggóˈ officer of the peace, constable, sheriff; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to imprison or incarcerate s/o; to take s/o prisoner; an binibilanggóˈ prisoner, convict; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to put s/o in prison; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use s/t for the purpose of incarceration (such as stocks); ‑AN: bilanggóˈan prison [MDL]
To keep captives or prisoners from fleeing, they could be manacled, an action referred to as gápos, a term still in use. If a prisoner were to resist attempts to shackle him, then help would be requested, often for more then one person (dágon).
gápos MAG‑, ‑ON to manacle or shackle s/o; to tie s/o's hands or feet; MAG‑, ‑AN to tie s/o by the hands or feet [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to tie s/o's hands or feet; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to tie s/o by the hands or feet]
dágon MAG‑ to help one another in subduing or manacling s/o who presents a great deal of resistence (two people or many); MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to come to the aid of s/o who is trying to subdue or manacle another; MINA‑: minadágon to come to s/o's aid in such circumstances [MDL]
Vengeance for the death of another could be taken out on an individual captive or prisoner (tukól). Vengeance could also be taken out more randomly. Rabáy refers to the meting out of justice in a general way in which both the innocent and guilty are treated equally harshly. With balós we have a term which has narrowed over the centuries. While in modern Bikol it is primarily a term of revenge, only in the expression mabalós 'thank you' and the noun kabalósan 'restitution' does it carry some of its older meaning where both good and evil would be dealt with by the appropriate response.
tukól referring to a captive or prisoner killed to avenge the death of another; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to kill s/o to avenge the death of a townmate or relative; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to kill s/o for a particular reason or to avenge a particular death; tukól-tukól MAG‑ to travel about taking vengeance out in turn on those who have killed a relative or townmate [MDL]
rabáy MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to blame or punish everyone for the misdeeds of a few; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to blame and punish the innocent along with the guilty; MA‑‑AN to be blamed or punished in this way (the guilty and innocent); IKA‑ to be blamed or punished (the innocent); MAKA‑ to blame the innocent along with the guilty [MDL]
balós MAG‑, ‑ON to take revenge on s/o; to get even with, retaliate against or wreak vengeance on s/o; MAG‑, I‑ to avenge s/o; to revenge or retaliate for s/t; MAG‑, ‑AN to avenge s/o; to seek revenge on be half of s/o; ‑AN: baralósan vengeance, vendetta, reprisal; KA‑‑AN restitution, repatriation; mabalós thank you [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON to avenge an injustice; to reward a good deed; MA‑, ‑AN to take vengeance out on s/o; to reward s/o by returning a good deed; MA‑, I‑ to engage in a particular type of vengeance; to offer s/t as retribution or reward; MAG‑ to take vengeance or retribution out on one another (two people or many); MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to take vengeance out on s/o (many people); MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to give s/o a number of things as retribution; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to give a number of things as retribution]
Could prisoners or captives be tortured? The answer seems to be yes. Lúbag has kept its older meaning in modern Bikol, although the Lisboa entry is somewhat more specific.
lúbag MAG‑, ‑AN to torment s/o; to torture s/o; PARA‑ tormentor, torturer [+MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to torture the guilty into confessing their crimes; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to inflict a particular torture on s/o]
If the captain of a boat wished to retrieve one of his captured crew, he could pay a ransom to the captors (bungló). Towns that were militarily weaker than those around them, or wished to avoid conflict, could enter into a tribute relationship. The payment of such tribute was called buhís. The modern Bikol term, buwís, refers to a 'tax', 'duty', or 'levy'. There was also the case where tributes could be combined and paid as one (agubáng). While the reasons for this are not stated, it is possible that neighboring towns might not be equally wealthy, or were able to accumulate surpluses during different tribute years. The entry is positive in that it refers primarily to the support parents give to married children and so the conclusion must be that towns saw this combining of tribute as mutually beneficial.
bungló MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to ransom one of his captured crew (the captain of a ship, boat); MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to pay gold as ransom [MDL]
buhís MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to pay tribute, tax; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to pay tribute or tax to s/o or to a state; ‑AN: bubuhísan the person or state paid tribute; PA‑‑AN the tributary state or town; the person paying tax [MDL]
buwís tax, duty, levy; MAG‑, ‑AN to pay a tax on s/t or for s/t
agubáng referring to the help one set of parents gives to another as a contribution to the support of their married children; MA‑, ‑AN to help in the support of their married children (one set of parents aiding another, or both sets contributing to a common fund); MA‑, I‑ to make a particular contribution to such support, either monetary or in kind; MAG‑ to contribute mutually to the support of their married children (both sets of parents); to join in paying tax or a tribute; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to support married children by combining their contributions (both sets of parents); to join two tax contributions; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to aid married children with a combined contribution; to join one part of a tribute with another; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to combine one contribution with another; Paˈnóng diˈ maraháy an pagharóng-hárong ni kuyán taˈ pinagkakaagubangán pa kan mga kaganák Why shouldn't the living conditions of the newlyweds be good, after all, they are still being helped by their parents; Pagagubangán ta an satóng buhís Let's combine our tribute [MDL]
What was the state of war and conflict in the Bikol region at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries? Which areas of the Bikol region were primarily affected? This is difficult to say using dictionary entries alone for reconstruction. We can, however, combine the information from a dictionary with a certain amount of conjecture about the overall potential for conflict in the region.
It is clear that conflict was not simply a historical phenomenon, something that no longer occurred by the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Lisboa is careful to label older or historical entries as archaic. The majority of entries relating to war and conflict are not marked this way.
In which areas of the region might conflict have occurred? Although Lisboa was resident in the town of Quipayo, not far from Naga City, at the time of compiling his dictionary, dictionary references to conquest and annihilation no doubt refer to a far wider geographical area. References are made to attacks by sea, and to various battles on land. Lisboa himself was familiar with much of the region, having lived in both Nabua and Oas before moving to Quipayo, and also serving as the religious administrator for the entire province.
Why might conflict have occurred? There are a number of possible reasons. Bikolanos then, as now, speak substantially different varieties of what is referred to as Bikol. Having a unifying term for the language does not change the reality of generally mutually unintelligible dialects. Bikolanos would have probably, with no unifying national or regional identity around them, considered themselves quite different from the other dialect groups of the region. Lisboa records a significant number of entries which refer to trading, residing, fighting or dying in a town that is not one's own. There was obviously a sense of belonging only to one's own town, and to be elsewhere was to be in strange territory. Feelings of belonging to one place and not to another could also lead to conflict (see Chapter 16, 'Towns, Trade and Travel,' Section 2(ii)).
There is also the question of migration. Judging from the linguistic situation alone, it is obvious that the current Bikolanos would have arrived in the region at different times to make a home for themselves in what was not necessarily unoccupied territory. These incursions of immigrant groups, mainly from the south [2], must have led to conflict. What was the time line for these migrations? This we do not know, but they must have occurred gradually over long periods of time. For some groups it may not have been all that much before the arrival of the Spanish in the region.
Geographically Bikol is a region exposed, not only to groups migrating from other areas of the Philippines, but to groups of raiders as well. Bikol had it share of raids from the south, from areas in Mindanao as well as areas now part of Malaysia and Indonesia[3]. It also had it share of raids closer to home.
The Bikol region is also prone to typhoons, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. These could lead to the loss of seasonal crops. The overall effect could even last much longer. There were, in addition, plagues of locusts which devoured the harvest before it could be saved. Lisboa records evidence of famine, and mentions the foods eaten during times of scarcity, that is those foods consumed in the absence of rice (see Chapter 2, 'Food ,' Section 2). With such disasters destroying the livelihood of entire towns, there had to have been pressure on the resources of surrounding regions which may have been spared such adversity. This could also have led to conflict.
Additionally, we have much evidence of conflict in the Lisboa dictionary itself. Reference is made to a large variety of offensive and defensive weapons, techniques for the use of specific weapons and ways of carrying them both singly and in combination. There are references as well to a variety of shield types and protective clothing, and different types of wounds inflicted in different ways by different weapons. There are also a great many terms for defensive and offensive operations and specifics on the keeping and ransoming of captives.
The sum of all of this leads us to a conclusion that during the sixteenth century, and certainly earlier, there must have been periods of substantial conflict in specific areas and among specific groups of people in the region. What we lack from using a dictionary to come to these conclusions is the general context of these conflicts, their frequency and the overall balance between periods of conflict and periods of peace.
ENDNOTES
[1] This paper was originally published as 'Pre-Hispanic Terms for War and Conflict', in Pilipinas, No. 26, Spring 1996, p. 165-193.
[2] Malcolm W. Mintz, 'Anger and Verse: Two Vocabulary Subsets in Bikol' Vical 2: Western Austronesian and contact languages, Papers from the 5th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Auckland: Linguistics Society of New Zealand, 1991. P. 231-244.
[3] Francisco, S.J. Mallari, 'Muslim Raids in Bicol: 1580-1792,' Philippine Studies, vol. 34 (1986), p. 257-286.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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