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Intersections: Gender and Sexuality in Asia and the Pacific
Issue 34, March 2014 |
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in the Philippines at the turn of the Sixteenth Century Malcolm Mintz |
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Overview
Inhabitants of the Bikol region, like the Visayans to the south, were referred to by the Spaniards as 'the painted ones' due to the tattoos which covered the bodies of men, and it is this topic which opens this article. Compared are the tattoos worn by men and women, the age at which tattooing began, the types of tattoos worn, the reasons why they were given and the materials used to produce the colour needed. The common practice of filing the teeth, as well as colouring them and inlaying individual teeth with gold, is introduced in Section 2. Included are the techniques employed and the possible origin of the dyes used to produce the striking red and black colours. Section 3 looks at hair and head coverings and discussed here is the way the hair was worn, how it was wrapped or knotted, as well as its cleaning, combing and scenting. Also examined are shaping of the eyebrows and what happened to hair which appeared on other parts of the body. Section 4 is a general overview of what it meant to be well dressed in the Bikol region of 400 years ago, the jewellery which was worn and valued, and how this made the individual appear to others around them. With Section 5 begins the longer discussion of specific types of jewellery starting with the necklaces. Materials which were used included seeds, gemstones and beads of gold, with gemstones being the most restricted. An attempt is also made to further identify the types of seeds which were chosen for this decorative purpose. A detailled discussion of earrings is the basis for Section 6; how the ears were bored, how common it was and at what age this happened. Considered are the types of earrings chosen and the number which could be worn in each ear. Section 7 looks at bracelets, armbands and anklets made from rattan, seashells, tortoise shell, brass, gold and ivory. The value of some of these materials, as well as their origin and trade, is also discussed. Section 8 is a short section on rings, and Section 9 a concluding section on various types of chains. Examined are the stringing of beads, the fabrication of finely fitted gold segments, the links and clasps which held them in place and how and where they were worn.
The Spanish referred to the Visayans, inhabitants of the central islands of the Philippines, as los Pintados 'the Painted Ones' because of the custom, among men, of tattooing their bodies. The same description was also applied to the inhabitants of the Bikol region, although not to the Tagalogs further north on Luzon. Cultural ties of the Bikolanos were to a large degree to the south[1] and there is linguistic evidence, most clearly among the groups inhabiting the southern part of the peninsula at Sorsogon, that at least some of the inhabitants immigrated to the region from this area. Lisboa has only eight entries which pertain to tattooing, and these include general entries referring to tattooed men as well as more specific entries about the types of tattoos found and the reason men chose to be tattooed. The most detailed information about tattooing comes from descriptions in Ignacio Francisco Alcina's The History of the Bisayan People in the Philippines Islands[2] and Francisco Colin, Labor evangélica,[3] although mention is made in many of the early accounts of the Philippines: Antonio Pigafetta, Primo Viaggio Intorno al Mondo,[4] Diego de Artieda, Relation of the Western Islands Called Filipinas,[5] Pedro Chirino, Relación de las Islas Filipinas,[6] Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas,[7] Miguel de Loarca, Relación de las Islas Filipinas,[8] Diego de Bobadilla, Relation of the Filipinas Islands[9] and striking photos are preserved in the Boxer Codex.[10] William Henry Scott also has a summary section on tattooing among the Visayans in Barangay.[11] While men tattooed their whole bodies, women are said to have restricted tattoos to only their hands. Although the tattooing only of the hands is mentioned briefly by Chrino[12] and Colin,[13] and in far more detail by Alcina,[14] there is an image in the Boxer Codex which does depict a woman not only with arms fully tattooed, but with tattoos as well around the neck with some indication that they extend at least to the upper area of the chest.[15] According to Alcina, Visayan women tattooed only the back of the hand and the backs of the fingers. Some tattooed just one hand, and others both, with Chirino indicating that only part of the second hand was tattooed. Tattooing of the back of hand continued as far as the wrist, and while the fingers were also tattooed only on the back, the fineness and closeness of the detail often made it seem as if the fingers were tattooed fully around. The designs are described as delicate, comprising floral and ribbon-like patterns, with the implication that these designs were far finer than those employed by men. All accounts indicate that children were not tattooed. Tattooing began when young men were of a sufficient age to withstand the attendant pain[16] with Alcina mentioning that it would begin at an age of 20 years and above.[17] Men were generally tattooed after exhibiting some act of bravery.[18] There is also evidence for this in an entry in Lisboa where one of the beliefs held at the time was that a man who tattooed his body without first proving himself in battle, would subsequently become ill or die (sibóng).
Tattooing began at the instep or ankle and then continued up the leg to the groin.[20] For Bikol, this starting point was referred to as tiláng-tiláng and the resulting tattoos on the legs and thighs as labíd.
labíd tattoo (typ‑ on one's legs and thighs); MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to tattoo a person's legs, thighs; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to tattoo a particular design on the legs, thighs [MDL]
táwo-táwo people, said in jest; tattooed men [MDL]
A variety of combs were used, each designed to cover the width of the line which was to be tattooed, varying from one to just over two fingers wide. Pricking of the skin with these combs resulted in all the skin of the area being removed. This area was dusted with a powder derived from a black, resinous pitch Alcina refers to as salóng (a dammar resin) derived from trees of the genuses Shorea and Pentacme referred to as lawáˈan. The Bikol entries for these terms are presented below.
lawáˈan tree (typ‑ red lawáˈan: Shorea negrosensis; white lawáˈan: Pentacme contorta and Pentacme mindanensis) While mention is made of how the dominant black colour was achieved in tattooing, Alcina does not indicate the origin of the blue colour. Of the ancient, natural dyes used in tattooing, blue pigment could be obtained from copper carbonate, known as azurite.[29] This is a mineral found in the Philippines, available in the Visayas, and the possible source of the blue pigment used in tattooing.[30] Exposing so much of the body to what amounted open wounds and then covering these with non-sterile resins, was not without its consequences. Men would isolate themselves for nine to 10 days to allow themselves to recover. If infection set in this would result in inflamation and fevers from which not all of them survived.[31] There is one further entry in Lisboa which, while not referring to tattoos, is most likely a form of ritual ornamentation. This is lábong, a set of burn marks on the arm located near the wrist. An entry of the same form, labong, can be found in Sanchez de la Rosa's Waray dictionary[32] where more information about the practice is supplied: 'a circle of flammable fibres is placed around the wrist and then burned, forming a mark taken as a sign of bravery'. The same type of burning may be applied to other parts of the body.
The dying, filing and inlaying of the teeth with gold was a practice widespread in the Philippines at the time of arrival of the Spanish. Numerous references can be found in early accounts of the region, and the practice existed into the latter decades of the twentieth century in northern parts of Luzon.[33] There is a limited number of entries in Lisboa referring to tooth modification, and most of the early accounts on the practice also lack a degree of detail. Similar types of information can be found in the accounts of Chirino,[34] Alcina,[35] Diego de Bobadilla,[36] Colin,[37] Morga,[38] Pigafetta[39] and Juan Francisco de San Antonio.[40] Scott also summarises the situation in the Visayas in Barangay.[41] Filing of the teeth was a regular practice with most adults showing this type of procedure. Chirino and Morga[42] mention that such filing began in childhood and continued into adulthood, although remains found at the Calatagán excavations in Batangas indicate that tooth filing of individuals there did not occur until the late teens, generally around the age of 17 years.[43] Teeth could be filed to points,[44] or filed so that each tooth would be level with the others.[45] Such an action in Bikol was referred to as ngudngód. For the Visayans, an expert using small, elongated stones was engaged for this purpose.[46]
While inlaying and the insertion of gold pegs into the incisors was a customary practice in the Philippines, only one individual at Calatagán showed evidence of this practice.[48] From the few entries found in Lisboa, we may assume that this was a practice, probably common, in the Bikol region. Of the large variety of gold found and identified in Bikol, rítiˈ was the gold used for dental work or adornment. In modern Bikol, pásak is a crown or filling for a tooth, but during Lisboa's time this referred to gold that was inlayed or inserted into the tooth. As to how this was accomplished, we have to look at data outside the Bikol region.
pásak cap crown or filling for a tooth (usually gold); MAG‑, ‑AN to cap, crown or fill a tooth; MAG‑, I‑ to crown a tooth with gold [MDL: (arc‑) gold which is inserted or inlayed into a tooth; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to insert gold into a tooth; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use gold for this purpose] Alinca mentioned that the decorating of teeth with gold was a practice only of women. Colin and San Antonio[51] indicate that is was a practice found particularly among women of upper classes. There is no mention in Chirino, nor in Lisboa, as to this being a custom strictly among women, and Diego de Bobadilla[52] indicates that women followed men in this custom. We have, then, a custom exhibiting some regional and cultural variation. The inlay of gold into the teeth was made more striking since it was usual to dye the teeth. Ordinarily the teeth were dyed black[53] but reference in Diego de Bobadilla, Chirino[54] and Lisboa indicate that teeth could be coloured black (gúmaˈ) or red (lakháˈ).
lakháˈ an aromatic substance imported from China, used for incense and to color the teeth red; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to color the teeth with this substance; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use small pieces of this substance to dye the teeth [HINDI lākh resin] [MDL] To dye the teeth black there are two references in Lisboa, amlóng and muyá which Thomas J Zumbroich identifies as the single plant, Epipremnum pinnatum[58] and mention is made in PC Boyce, 'The genus Epipremnum schott'[59] that this was a plant used for such a purpose. A third entry in Lisboa, talhág, also refers to an ivy-like plant growing up trees whose leaves, when chewed, turn the teeth black, but it is not clear if this is related toamlóng and muyá.
bakóng root (typ‑ used for blackening the teeth); used in narratives and verse in place of amlóng [MDL] muyá plant (typ‑ leafy, growing attached to the trunks of palms and trees); the small hard core is chewed to blacken the teeth [MDL] talhág ivy-like plant growing up trees, its leaves chewed like búyoˈ, causing the teeth to turn black [MDL]
búnga areca palm and nut; betel nut (typ‑ Areca catechu) [+MDL: MA‑ or MAG‑ to add pieces of betel nut to the leaf called búyoˈ, the main ingredients in the mixture with lime called mamáˈ; also: to rub moistened betel nut on the hands and feet to prevent the skin from becoming itchy and irritated when in long contact with the water of rice fields] búyoˈ vine (typ‑ possessing a leaf used as part of the mixture of betel nut and lime called mamáˈ); ‑AN a place where this vine grows [+MDL] putíˈ lime (mineral) [+MDL: MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to add lime to búyoˈ as part of the betel nut mixture; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to mix búyoˈ with lime; MAHING‑, HING‑‑ON or MAGHING‑, PAGHING‑‑ON to make lime from oyster or clam shell, stone; MAHING‑, IHING‑ or MAGHING‑, IPAGHING‑ to use fire in the processing of lime]
Care of the hair (buhók) and the way it was worn was an important part of grooming in the Philippines. The length of hair worn by men varied depending on the region. Tagalogs had their hair at shoulder-length, those in the Cagayan valley below the shoulder, while those of Ilocos wore their hair shorter. The Visayans could have their hair shorter[60] or longer and done up, tied at the crown of the head using a small piece of gauze.[61] There were not only differences from region to region, but also within regions with Alcina mentioning that variable hair length among men was the case in the Visayas.[62] Men who had longer hair could also could plait it into a cue (hakósan).[63]
hakósan plait, braid (typ‑ in rope, hair); MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to plait or braid a rope, hair; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to produce this type of plait in hair, rope [MDL] Specific detail is recorded by Colin for Tagalog who describes the putong as a long thin cloth which is tied in various modes across the forehead and temples, at times resembling a turban and at others the crown of a hat. Those men who had performed particular acts of bravery allowed the ends of the putong to hang down their back while others wore it at even greater length, allowing the ends to reach their legs. The colour of the cloth indicated the rank and number of deeds performed by the wearer. Only those who had killed at least one person could wear the colour red, and only after seven deaths could the putong be worn with particular types of embroidery along its edge.[66] De la Rosa includes in his entry for pudong the following saying which indicates that the wearing of the headdress in Samar may have also had an association with completed acts of valour: 'the headdress which covers the temples of a coward is like a haze which obscures his mind; that of a conqueror is like a light which illuminates it'. Alcina, writing about the same area, also indicates that men who showed exceptional bravery or who had killed in battle, wore the red pudong with one end trailing loosely down the back. A pudong woven of finer material would be worn on more formal occasions.[67]
For Bikol, bangló is the hairpiece worn by women, but also added by men who were waiting for their own hair to grow, and the knot into which the hair was tied was, and still is, called putós. A false hairpiece may have also been used when the hair was thinning (payagpág).
putós a hair bun; topknot; MAG‑, ‑ON to tie up the hair; to put the hair up [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to tie up the hair in a bun; ‑AN: pinutosán or pinuputosán hair which is tied up; a hair bun] payagpág ‑ON describing thinning hair or s/o with thinning hair; also refers to thin eyelashes: Kapayagpágon kainíng buhók mo Your hair is very thin [MDL]
The custom, however, clearly still existed in the Northern provinces of the Philippines with the Spanish king ordering that the wilful cutting of women's hair as a punishment for disobedience by certain Dominican priests in Nueva Segovia in 1624 (at that time centered in the Cagayan Valley), be stopped as it caused far too much resentment,[73] and also in Samar at the time Alcina was writing in 1668. San Antonio, using sources from the 16th and 17th centuries in his Cronicas of 1738, also describes as an affront the cutting of the hair as punishment for any crime or infraction.[74]
bulóg MAG‑, ‑ON to cut the hair; MAG‑, ‑AN to cut the hair from s/o; to give s/o a haircut; MAGPA‑ to get a haircut; PARA‑ barber [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to cut the hair; to cut s/o's hair] tubtób MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to crop the hair; to cut the hair very short; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to crop s/o's hair very short [MDL] karís MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to shave the hair with a razor or knife; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑AN to shave the head [MDL] sanggól (arc‑) MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to cut the hair short as a sign of mourning; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to cut s/o's hair short for this reason [MDL]
húgay comb for the hair; MAG‑, ‑ON to comb the hair [+MDL: wide comb used to pull knots or tangles from the hair; a rake for straw; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to remove knots, tangles from the hair; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to disentangle hair; to free the hair of knots with such a comb] sukráy comb (typ‑ large, used by women); MAG‑, ‑ON to comb the hair with such a comb [+MDL] suráng MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to comb the hair [MDL]
sabukrót tangled (the hair); MAG‑ to be tangled (the hair); Nagsabukrót na iníng buhók ko My hair is tangled; ‑ON a person with tangled hair [MDL] supáyong describing long hair that is tangled and matted; MAG‑ to have such hair: Nagsupáyong ka na Your hair is very long and tangled ... [MDL] pitpít matted down (wet fur, feathers, hair); MA‑ to become matted down when wet; IKA‑ to cause such matting (water); (fig‑) MANG‑ Namitpít na akó I'm soaking wet [MDL] lugáy a term of disapproval when referring to a woman with disheveled hair, or hair that is not properly combed or tied; MAG‑ to have the hair in such a state; Naglugáy na si kuyán How messy that person's hair is [MDL]
úbas remainder of tubáˈ which can no longer be used for normal purposes or drunk; remainder of grated coconut used for washing the hair and not useful for any other purpose [MDL] haˈnós mixture used as a hair dressing, the main ingredient of which is coconut oil; MAG‑, I‑ to apply such a mixture; MAG‑, ‑AN to apply such a mixture to the hair [MDL: hanós grated coconut wrapped in abaca fiber, used to wash the scalp to remove dandruff; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑ON to remove dandruff with such a mixture; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to wash the scalp with grated coconut wrapped in abaca fiber; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use grated coconut for this purpose]
gúgoˈ vine (typ‑ thick and woody, possessing a bark which may be used in preparing a shampoo for treating dandruff; Entada phaseoloides); MAG‑, ‑ON to remove dandruff by shampooing with such a preparation; MAG‑, ‑AN to shampoo the head; MAG‑, I‑ to use this bark as a shampoo [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to remove dandruff with this shampoo]
bákong plant (typ‑ with long, wide leaves producing a star-like, fragrant flower; the pith of the stems is used in fishing, and the juice of the fleshy leaves as a hair dressing [MDL] langá sesame; ... var‑ lungá [+MDL] Civet (didís) is the fluid excreted from the anal glands of the civet cat (singgálong), producing a strong, though pleasant smell (anghít). It is used in the Bikol region for perfuming clothing (dagpíˈ) and may have also been used for the hair.
singgálong civet cat, wildcat (typ‑ Philippine, white); a catlike mammal of the family Viverridae having anal scent glands that secrete a fluid with a musky odor [+MDL: Abóng hamót singgálong doy idtó That civet cat smells very nice] anghít the smell of civet; also used to refer to other strong and overpowering smells; MA‑ to have such a smell [MDL] dagpíˈ MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to salt s/t one is seasoning or preserving; to perfume clothing with civet or musk; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to add salt; to add civet or musk to clothing [MDL]
kalambák oil (typ‑ medicinal, fragrant, used for rubbing into the skin); derived from the resin of the agarwood tree (Aquilaria malaccensis), which is produced by the wood in response to infection by a type of mold) [MDL] kalanghúgaˈ shellfish (typ‑ elongated, spiral-shaped, saltwater; genus Buccinum) [+MDL: kalanhúgaˈ the operculum (the hard, corneous material - the material found in the formation of horns) which covers the opening or foot of the snail serves as a fixer when ground and mixed with scents in the making of perfumes and incense]
pandán pandanus (typ‑ small tree possessing prop roots and narrow leaves clustered at the ends of branches, used in the weaving of mats and other articles; also producing a large, fragrant fruit; Pandanus) [+MDL: pangdán pandanus; púsoˈ kan pangdán pandanus flower] sinampága type of crown or headband of gold flowers, worn by women [MDL] sampága flower, a general term, referring particularly to those flowers from Mexico [MDL] tadyók a cluster of flowers worn by women in the hair; a headpiece of gold; MAG‑ to dress, wearing such a headpiece or a cluster of flowers in the hair; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to wear a particular cluster of flowers or gold; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN decorate one's hair with flowers, gold; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to place such flowers, gold in the hair [MDL]
sanít MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to pull out a few hairs with the fingers; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to pull these hairs from the head, a person; (fig‑) Makakasaró-sanít pa akó kainíng sakóng pinangangábaka My stripping of abaca fiber is like pulling out just a few hairs (Said when one who is stripping abaca is constantly interrupted by other tasks to attend to) [MDL] sapúyong MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to pull out the hair; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to pull out the hair from the head [MDL] raˈbít MAG‑, ‑ON to pluck the feathers of a bird or fowl; MAG‑, ‑AN to pluck the feathers from a bird or fowl [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑ON to pluck the feathers of a bird or fowl; to pull out hair from the head, beard; to pull up a plant with the hand; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑AN to pull feathers from a fowl, hair from the head] rabnót MAG‑, ‑ON to grab s/o by the hair or beard; to grab onto s/t and pull [MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to pluck feathers; to pull out the hair from the head, a beard; to pull up a plant with the hand; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑AN to pluck the feathers from a bird, fowl; to pull out hair from the head, a beard; to pull up a plant from the ground]
sagúso MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to trim the eyebrows (women); MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑AN to trim a woman's eyebrows [MDL] dáhit eyebrows (well shaped, not wide); MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to shape the eyebrows; Garó na dináhit an kikiráyon ni kuyán It's as if that person's eyebrows have been shaped [MDL]
pikít squinting; having one eye smaller than the other; MAG‑ to squint; MAG‑, ‑ON to close one eye [+MDL: one who is blind or short sighted who has the eyes closed; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to close the eyes to a narrow slit (squint) as when looking at the sun]
While everyday life would have been taken up by the myriad tasks needed for survival, there would have also been opportunities for dressing up. Occasions could include weddings and funerals, religious celebrations or simply being invited as a guest (dápit). Dressing up included not only wearing ones finest clothes, but also an aray of one's jewellery (andág, sayóng, sunód).
andág MA‑ to be beautifully dressed or adorned; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to dress or adorn s/o with beautiful clothing or jewelry; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use particular clothing or jewelry for adornment [MDL] sayóng MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to dress s/o up in their finest; to adorn a person, image or effigy; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to adorn s/o with fine clothes or jewelry [MDL] sunód MAG‑ to dress o/s; to wear rings, bracelets; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to put on clothes, such as the full length tunic, lambóng, or the shirt-like garment, bádoˈ; to place a ring on the finger or bracelets on the wrist; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN: pagsunorán to dress in particular clothing; to place a ring on the finger or a bracelet on the wrist; MA‑ to dress o/s; to wear rings, bracelets; MA‑, ‑AN: sunorán to dress s/o; to place a ring on the finger or a bracelet on the wrist; to place the feet in stocks; MA‑, I‑ to put on or dress s/o in particular clothing, rings or bracelets [MDL] Pinangdán could be worn as a belt or in the hair as a type of decoration (see Section 3). Raˈos was a belt used regionally by women in upland towns. Decorative items of beads were widespread. These are discussed fully in the sections which follow.
balíˈog scarf, muffler; ... [MDL: necklace, collar; MAG‑ to wear a necklace, collar; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to put on a necklace or collar; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to place a necklace, collar around s/o's neck; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to put a necklace or collar in place] raˈos belt (typ‑ worn by women in upland towns, made of beads interspersed with gold) [MDL]
kawatán ‑ON: kawatnón jewelry, finery (including necklaces, earrings); MAG‑ or MANG‑ to wear jewelry; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON or MANG‑, PANG‑‑ON to put on particular items of jewelry; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN or MANG‑, PANG‑‑AN to adorn s/o with jewelry; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ or MANG‑, IPANG‑ to use particular jewelry or finery for adornment; sangkáp an pangawatán fully adorned, in full regalia [MDL] sayhán trinkets, jewelry; used only in narratives and verse [MDL] arungáˈing trinket, bauble; ornament; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to adorn s/o or s/t; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to adorn s/o with particular baubles or trinkets; PANG‑ adornment, ornamentation; Si makuríng pangarungáˈing What unusual ornamentation [MDL] sapáro a small box with an unhinged lid, used for storing jewelry [MDL]
ílaw light, lamp; headlight; flare; ... [+MDL: MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to shine a light on s/t; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to use s/t for illumination (such as a candle); MAKA‑ to shine, glisten: ... Nakaílaw na an pangawatán ni kuyán That person's jewelry (gold) really glistens] láˈad flame, flare ... [+MDL: MA‑ or MAG‑ to flame; to burn (a fire) ... (fig‑) Nagláˈad na si kuyán kan pangawatán That person is resplendent with jewelry ...] ludáb firelight; MA‑ or MAG‑ to burn brightly (a fire); (PAG‑)‑AN to be illuminated by firelight; (fig‑) Nagludáb na iyán pangawatán ni kuyán That person's gold jewelry really glitters [MDL] gírim-gírim MA‑ or MAG‑ to glitter, gleam, shine (as a gold chain): Gírim-gírim na iyán talikaláˈ ni kuyán That person's chain really glitters; MA‑ glittering, gleaming, shining [MDL]
darága young, unmarried woman; maiden, damsel, lass, virgin; PAGKA‑ femininity; maidenhood, virginity [+MDL: MA‑ to develop into a young woman; MAG‑: magdaró-darága to dress up; to deck o/s out; to make o/s up; MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑AN: pagdaró-daragáhan to dress up for s/o; MAG‑, IPAG‑ ipagdaró-darága to adorn o/s with particular clothes; MA‑: madaró-darága one who likes to dress up]
Necklaces were of varying types, made from a variety of materials. There were those made from the seeds of plants, from cornelian, a type of reddish-brown quartz, and from beads and pieces of gold. There were also the gold chains which could be worn around the neck as well as other parts of the body (see Section 9). Looking first at the plants, larger necklaces were made from the seeds of the burí or talipot palm. These are rounded, brownish seeds that, once dried, could have been polished and shaped in various ways before being strung together. Necklaces of this type are still available and sold commercially in the Philippines.
dalupániˈ ‑ON: dinalupániˈ; cube-shaped cornelian (a type of pale to deep red or reddish-brown quartz) or squares of gold used to make necklaces worn by women [MDL] Both gold and cornelian could be made into beads and strung to form necklaces (dinumágat), although more commonly, beaded necklaces were made from gold. These necklaces could comprise beads which were comparatively larger, hinapón, or smaller, gamáy, the former fastened with a clasp referred to generally as kaˈít, or more specifically, when comprised of small, wide rings, as tinuntónan.
hinapón chain (typ‑ of gold beads, threaded on string); MAG‑ to wear such a chain; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to put on such a chain; MA‑, ‑AN: hinapnán or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN: paghinapnán to wear such a chain around the neck; to place such a chain around s/o's neck [MDL] gamáy chain (typ‑ of gold beads, smaller than hinapón) [MDL] kaˈít ... clasps at the end of the gold chain called hinapón [MDL] tinuntónan clasp of the gold chain called hinapón consisting of small, wide rings [MDL]
dinugsóˈ gold beads (typ‑ very small) [MDL] matáng búkaw (arc‑) beads of gold, angled or faceted, worn as jewelry [MDL]
guˈóng tight, referring to gold necklaces worn closely around the neck, bracelets worn tightly around the wrist and rings worn in this way on a finger; MA‑ or MAG‑ to grow tighter, more constricting (necklaces, bracelets, rings); MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑ON to tighten such necklaces, bracelets or rings, making them fit more snugly [MDL]
Earrings were almost universally worn by both men and women and formed a showy part of bodily adornment. The ears of a newborn child, or one that was just two or three years of age, were pierced (tusók). So common was this process that only those who did not have pierced ears were singled out for particular reference (tubíng).
tubíng describing one who does not have pierced ears [MDL] With the use of a thin piece of copper wire serving as a needle, the first piercing was made in the child's earlobe. Into this hole was inserted a thin piece of cord, or a thick thread of cotton, which kept the hole open while it healed (hípot in Bikol), a process which could take from a few months to up to a year.
palbád ... frond of the burí palm, rolled and placed into the hole in a pierced earlobe ... [MDL] ríras fronds of the burí (palm) or báriw (pandanus) which have been split and cleaned; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to split and clean such fronds; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to remove s/t in the cleaning and splitting process [MDL] binúlan small roll of burí (palm) or báriw (pandanus) leaves; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to roll the leaves of such plants for storage so that they will be ready to use when required to make mats and baskets, and for other uses [MDL] For the Visayas, as indicated by Alcina, the first earring inserted into an enlarged earlobe was made from carabao horn, ivory or tortoise shell and this preceded the wearing of gold which was far more showy and attractive. Pigafetta, recording his observations in Cebu a century earlier, indicated that the holes were kept open by inserting a small piece of wood.[98] In Mindoro the earlobe was lined with a hollow gold ring which hugged the inside of the lobe, kept in place to further stretch the lobe.[99] Photos of domed, gold plugs attributed to the Bikol region can also be seen in Ramon N. Villegas, Ginto,[100] and these may have also been associated with keeping holes pierced in the ears open. The process of widening the hole in the earlobe continued until the stretched earlobe would sometimes reach below the chin. While Colin[101] made the general observation that the more the ears were stretched, the greater the sense of beauty, for Bikol there must have been a limit beyond which the stretching elicited comment (yadát).
In Bikol, palbád and tarúnaˈ, respectively earrings for women and men, are types of inserts held in place by the gold fasteners, bugól. The entry for yadát above indicates that these earrings were used in the enlarged opening in the earlobe. Photos in Ginto show square ear ornaments from Mindoro in the form of abstract flowers with edges snipped to resemble petals which were large enough to have been worn in the earlobe, although this detail is not mentioned.[106] Earrings were clearly of gold, something mentioned in all of the early references.[107]
tarúnaˈ gold earrings worn by men, no longer in fashion; MAG‑ to wear such earrings; MA‑ to place such earrings in s/o's ears [MDL] bugól small pyramid-shaped pieces of gold used as fasteners at the end of the posts of the male earrings called tarúnaˈ and the female earrings called palbád; MA‑ or MAG‑ to make such gold fasteners; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑AN to fasten earrings with such pieces of gold; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to place such fasteners on earrings [MDL]
Bracelets, armbands and anklets were commonly worn by both men and women. These were made from materials such as gold, brass, ivory, seashells and rattan. A number of bracelets of varying sizes and materials could be worn on one arm, with the other adorned by just one or by none at all.[110] Bracelets could also be worn in a series reaching up to the elbow and comprising, in addition to gold and ivory, strings of cornelian and other precious stones.[111] Having an arm covered in bracelets must not have been unusual for similar descriptions are found for the north in the Cagayan Valley[112] and the south in Mindanao.[113] Perhaps the most basic of the bracelets or armbands were those made of rattan. Lisboa records such a bracelet worn by women in the mountains (túgot) and another worn around the arm in lowland communities which he doesn't specify by gender (bakláw). One further bracelet which could be of rattan or gold, and possibly other materials, and specified as having a distinctive shape, was the bantúlang which was worn by men. The distinctive shape may be that given by the rattan, and so it is possible that some of the armbands and bracelets later made of gold may have originally taken their styling from a such a material.
bakláw rattan ring placed around a broom or basket to hold the material used in its construction in place and to give it extra strength; ... [MDL: (arc‑) armband (typ‑ worn tightly around the arm for adornment); small, woven rattan rings of unusual design used to tie or reinforce various objects; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to use rattan for this purpose; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to fasten or reinforce s/t with such rings; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to attach such rings] bantúlang bracelet (typ‑ of a distinctive shape, made from rattan or gold, or other materials fashioned in the same style, worn on the arms by men); ring (typ‑ placed on knives or other items); MAG‑ to wear such a bracelet; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to put on such a bracelet; to fashion such a bracelet from rattan or gold [MDL]
Cowry shells had value in Southeast Asia where they were used in particular countries as currency. This is mentioned by Lisboa, and Noceda refers to the cowry as being used as money along the coast.[116] Loarca records that ships from Borneo came to the Cuyo Islands to barter for the cowry which was used as money in Siam[117] and Morga has two references to such trade; one to the inhabitants of the Calamianes Islands who collected such shells to sell to the people of Siam, Cambodia and Patani where it was is used as money,[118] and a second to a Spanish captain who set out for Siam with cowry shells and other goods for barter.[119]
randás MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to carve tortoise shell (as when making bracelets, other items); to separate and work on tortoise shell [MDL] dandán anklet (typ‑ of brass or tortoise shell worn by men); MAG‑ to put on or wear such an anklet; MA‑ to place such an anklet on s/o [MDL] tambúriˈ thin bracelets of brass worn interspersed with those of tortoise shell; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to wear these two types of bracelets; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to intersperse tortoise shell bracelets with brass; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to place brass bracelets with those of tortoise shell [MDL]
karáhan shell (typ‑ such as that of the under part of a turtle or tortoise, comprised of segments [MDL] aluníb segments which make up the turtle or tortoise shell called karáhan [MDL] daráhit MAG‑: magdaráhit tortoise or turtle with a shell all in one piece and not in sections [MDL] Surprisingly, in light of the above, Lisboa refers to only two bracelets of gold, the butók, worn women, and the kalambugás or kalumbigás worn by men. One further bracelet worn by both men and women is the ládas. There is, however, no way of knowing what material this was made from as Lisboa gives no indication of this, and this particular bracelet does not appear in other dictionaries of the region.
kalambugás bracelet or armband (typ‑ gold, worn by men); MAG‑ to wear a such a bracelet or armband; MA‑ to place such a bracelet or armband on s/o; var‑ kalumbigás [MDL] ládas bracelet (typ‑ worn by men and women); MAG‑ to wear such a bracelet; MA‑ to place such a bracelet on s/o [MDL] This particular item of jewellery is probably, at least partially, a borrowing from Malay and is comprised of two parts, the first of which is kalong. We see the same form appearing in kalóng káki which has been borrowed into Bikol with the meaning 'brass,' but is the term in Malay for an 'anklet'. Kalung is an item of jewellery in Malay, most commonly a chain or ring, referring to a metal band. Kaki gives us the meaning 'foot'. Waray and Cebuano have meanings similar to Bikol associated with a form that differs only in the lack of a 'k,' kalong aki a 'brass' or 'metal ring' in the case of Waray and the replacement of 'k' by 'g,' kalong gaki 'brass' or 'anklet,' in the case of Cebuano.[128]
While the Bugis homeland is centred around Makassar at the southern tip of Sulawesi, their trading and political influence was widespread throughout the Malay world. They had a jewellery tradition that dated back centuries, and the Philippines lay to the north of them on their trading route to China.[129] It is worth considering this as a possible origin of the bracelet type kalambugás / kalumbigás. Brass is a harder metal than gold, being an alloy of copper and zinc, and it is perhaps for this reason that it appears to be more popular for use in bracelets, armbands and anklets in the Bikol region. Lisboa lists the baksál and pakingkíng as anklets both of which are essentially brass rings, although only the former is specifically identified in this way. The pakingkíng is clearly onomatopoetic, with kingkíng representing the sound of jingling, and pa‑ a causative prefix.
pakingkíng brass anklets; MA‑ to wear such anklets; to place such anklets on s/o; Garó na daˈá nagúlay-úlay an pakingkíng It's as if the anklets are talking to each other (Said when the anklets jingle) [MDL]
Alcina also mentions the bitík, describing it as a black cord which is wrapped around the leg from below the knee to the calf and worn as a sign of valour.[134] Cantius J Kobak, in the notes to his translated, edited and annotated edition of the Alcina, identifies this 'black cord' as the climbing forest fern, nítoˈ.[135] The entry below is Bikol.
Ivory bracelets were also referred to generally as padángan, although there were more specific terms depending on where on the arm they were placed. The first in a series of ivory bracelets worn by women, the bracelet placed closest to the wrist, was called pasúra and the one placed furthest from the wrist, at the end of a series of bracelets, was called paˈmón, this last with a more general reference to bracelets of other materials as well.
pasúra the first of a series of ivory bracelets worn by women close to the wrist; MAG‑ to wear such bracelets; MA‑ to place such a bracelet on s/o's wrist [MDL] paˈmón bands of ivory, tortoise shell, gold or brass worn by women furthest from the wrist, at the end of a number of other bracelets [MDL]
hakál-hakál used to describe ivory bracelets which are too wide and unsuitable for the person wearing them; MANG‑ to be too wide for a person's arm (ivory bracelets): Nanhakál-hakál na iníng mga gáding mo Your ivory bracelets are too wide for your arms [MDL]
galá-gála resin (typ‑ decorative, used in the making of the ivory bracelets (gáding) and other jewelry and ornaments); MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑ON to join or manufacture jewelry with such resin; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to place such resin on a particular part or section [MDL] Bracelets and armlets were put in place by slipping them over the hand and onto the arm, an action expressed by líso which applied as well to the placement of necklaces by slipping them over the head. Bracelets were meant to fit tightly over the arm, as mentioned in Lisboa's entry for líso, and this may have applied in particular to those made of ivory. Slipping the bracelets over the hand and onto to arm may also not have been so easy, with Mentrida including an entry for Hiligaynon to the tree handalamáy whose moistened bark was rubbed on the skin to facilitate the slipping on or removal of ivory bracelets.[140] Bracelets could be removed by slipping them off (hulpós) or by spreading the two ends apart (lungát).
hulpós MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to slip or slide s/t off (as a ring from the finger, a bracelet from the wrist, a loose knot); MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to slip or slide s/t off from s/t else; MA‑ to slip or slide off; MAKA‑ to slip out (as a chicken from a loose knot tied around its feet) [MDL] lungát MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to spread two ends apart (as of rings, bracelets so that they can be removed from the hand) [MDL]
While the wearing of rings was described as common in the Philippines with Chirino including a mention of 'finger rings,'[141] Colin describing the fingers of the hand being covered with many rings of gold and precious stones,[142] and Lisboa also including a mention in his entry for sunód (see Section 4), there is only one entry for 'ring' in the Vocabulario and that is singsíng. Singsíng is a general term for 'ring' found in the central Philippine languages, but only de la Rosa for Waray[143] defines it as being worn mainly an item of jewellery: 'a ring of metal or other material, plain or decorated, with or without a pearl or other precious stone, worn primarily for adornment on the fingers of the hand'.
There are hardly any specific references in Lisboa to precious stones or gems. Besides the mention of dalupániˈ 'cornelian' (see Section 5) there is only a general reference such as tampók. There are, however, two references to pearls, mutyáˈ and badrayá, of which mutyáˈ is still current. This is a borrowing from Malay with its ultimate origins in Sanskrit. Badrayá appears to also have its origins in Sanskrit, from the words vaidūrya[147] or vaidårya. Unlike mutyáˈ which was probably borrowed directly from Malay, badrayá has a form much closer to the original than the Malay which is baiduri.[148] Clearly there was another intermediary language. Meaning is another complicating factor. The Malay baiduri means 'opal' or 'cat's eye'. Vaidūrya has any number of meanings, including 'diamonds,' 'emeralds' and 'lapis lazuli'. There is no mention of 'pearl'. The term, as it entered Bikol, must have first been used in a general sense and then came to be associated with 'pearl' as a specific reference with a core meaning of 'valuable gem'.
mutyáˈ pearl, jewel, gem; precious stone; anything one holds dear; s/t beloved [MDL: pearl; ‑AN an oyster with a pearl; a person possessing a pearl] [MALAY mutia from SANSKRIT muktā] badrayá pearl [MDL] [SANSKRIT vaidūrya referring to a variety of gems, including diamonds, emeralds and lapis lazuli]
Although most of the chains worn by men and women were made of gold, there were others made from different materials as well. A small chain of horsehair or the bristles of a pig of cow was called sugí. What this chain was used for or if it was indeed worn as a form of adornment, is not mentioned and it does not appear in the other dictionaries of the region. Women could also wear a chain made from wire around the waist, and this was called kawád. Kawád in its various forms refers generally to some form of fine wire,[149] but only de la Rosa for Waray indicates that in addition to this general meaning, it may also refer to a chain of gold.[150] More detail on the shaping of wires and their use in jewellery can be found in Villegas, Ginto.[151]
kawád or ‑ON: kinawád or kinakawád chain (typ‑ made of wire, worn by women around the waist); the form kawád is used in verse [MDL]
tandás (arc‑) strings of beads placed along the edge of a skirt (tápis); MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to place strings of beads as a trimming; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to trim or edge a skirt with strings of beads [MDL]
madág beads (typ‑ small, yellow) [MDL]
hughóg unstrung (as beads); MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to remove beads from a string; to remove links from a chain; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to unstring; to undo a string or chain by removing beads or links [MDL] raydáy MAG‑ to fray; to become unstrung (as beads); MAG‑, ‑AN to unstring s/t (as beads) [MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to unstring s/t; to remove beads, links; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to remove beads, links (as from a belt, chain) idˈíd describing s/t prized for its uniformity or regularity; ‑ON to be equalized, regularized; to be made uniform; ... Garó na inidˈíd pagtúhog kainíng tutughán It's as if the beads have been strung uniformly on the necklace [MDL]
sumpáy a link; MAG‑, ‑ON to connect or join two things together; to link things together; ... [+MDL: MA‑, ‑AN to make s/t longer by adding s/t; MA‑, I‑ to add s/t to make s/t longer; MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to join s/t end to end, making it longer; MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to add to s/t with a number of things; MAG‑, IPAG‑ to add a number of things to s/t]
banhóg MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to remove the links of a gold chain; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to detach such links from a gold chain [MDL] ragáy MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to spread things out; ... to separate out the links or beads in a chain; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to spread things out over a particular surface or area; ... nararagáy na buláwan gold links or beads which have been removed from a chain and remain separate [MDL]
bátak MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to draw copper or gold into threads by passing the metal through a wide piece of steel possessing many holes called babatákan; ‑AN: babatákan the piece of steel used for drawing threads of copper and gold [MDL] rapgós MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to pull gold or copper threads through a metal block called babatákan or rapgósan in order to make them thinner; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑AN to pull such threads through such a block; ‑AN: rapgósan a metal block with many holes used for drawing gold or copper threads [MDL] tubís fine threads of gold, other metals; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to draw such threads; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to draw such threads from gold, other metals; ‑AN: tutubísan a block of metal with many small holes used for drawing out threads of gold, brass [MDL]
imbót a wide chain of gold worn around the waist by women; MAG‑ to wear such a chain; MA‑ to put such a chain around s/o's waist [MDL] kamági gold chain worn around the waist by women; MAG‑ to wear such a chain; MA‑ to put such a chain around s/o's waist [MDL] The entry in de la Rosa which describes the kamági as comprising small, tight fitting segments which give the appearance of one continuous string, presents some insight into the workmanship which went into their fabrication. The production of the interlocking beads which fit together with tooth-like projections is described in more detail in Villegas, Ginto,[155] and the notes to Chapter 3, in Part 1, Book 1 of the Alcina.[156] These notes draw on sections of the harder to come by Part 1, Book 3. There is some indication in the entries found in the Lisboa Vocabulario of the process involved in producing gold chains, in particular the kamági and hinapón. The links of such chains (gáris) were arranged to fit into one another (súkad), a process which was not always successful (bitás), and then tightened (sagpák) to give the chain strength. The finished chain would then be filed or ground by drawing it across a whetstone to even off the links (táˈis). Beads or links which were removed from such chains were referred to as wagáy.
súkad a tightly fitting cap, cover or lid (such as that on a container or a cut section of bamboo); ... MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to encase s/t; to cover one thing with another ...; to place one thing inside another; magsuró-súkad to place a number of things, one inside the other (such as links of gold (gáris) on the chains kamági and hinapón) ... [MDL] bitás referring to the links or beads in gold chains such as kamági and hinapón which are incorrectly cut and do not fit together well; MA‑ to fit incorrectly due to incorrect cutting (the links or beads in a gold chain); Taˈ daw taˈ nabitás an pagbutáng mo kainíng ráwa-ráwa? How come the finishing touches you have put on this gold work are so poorly done? [MDL] sagpák MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to tighten the links of the gold chains called kamági and hinapón so that they fit together well and remain strong [MDL] táˈis MAG‑, ‑ON to hone, grind or whet s/t; to sharpen a blade ... [+MDL: MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to grind s/t on a stone; to file recently completed gold chains to make the links even ...; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑ ‑AN to grind s/t on or against a whetstone; ‑AN: tataˈísan grinding stone, whetstone] wagáy gold beads or links which have been removed from the chains called kamági and hinapón; MA‑, ‑ON or MAG‑, PAG‑‑ON to remove such links or beads; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to remove such links from a chain; MA‑ to become detached (such links, beads) [MDL]
tinabóg beads used to finish off the ends of the gold chains, kamági and layón, or placed at intervals along the length of these chains [MDL] básong clasp of a gold chain; MA‑, I‑ or MAG‑, IPAG‑ to place a clasp on a gold chain; MA‑, ‑AN or MAG‑, PAG‑‑AN to fasten a gold chain with a clasp; ‑AN: binasóngan a gold chain with a clasp [MDL]
pinarugmók gold chain (typ‑ made of gold threads, smaller than hinúyot); MAG‑ to wear such a chain; MA‑ to place such a chain on s/o [MDL] There were various ways to add decoration to gold chains. One of these was by adding the body of the beetle called laníban. This type of beetle also appears in de la Rosa for Waray where it is described as a 'green insect with bright, shining (perhaps 'golden') wings[159] and in Alcina where it is described as a variety of beetle about one-half finger in length and breadth, possessing a delicate green colour, more opaque though more intense and brilliant than that of emeralds, also giving the impression of gold superimposed over green.[160] The laníban also is found in the Tagalog of Tayabas (Quezon)[161] where it is shown as equivalent to the standard Tagalog salagintô. Salagintô translates as the English 'golden tortoise beetle' or the Charidotella sexpunctata.[162] This may or may not be the same as the laníban. The Bikol entries below show the laníban and two other colourful beetles that may have also been used in the decoration of chains, although this is not specifically mentioned in the last of these two entries.
angguguríng beetle (typ‑, green and gold, used for decorative purposes, such as being placed on gold chains); smaller than the beetle called laníban; MANG‑ to go in search of such beetles [MDL] sambulawán beetle (typ‑ yellow and gold, the same size as the beetle called angguguríng [MDL]
Interspersed among the days of daily toil, of cultivating crops, repairing houses, tending livestock, cooking, cleaning and rasing children, there would have been days of celebration. These may have been days of religious adoration, days of marriages or births, or days of simply giving thanks for some welcome bounty produced from the soil or forest. These would have been times to shed the clothes donned daily for work and choose more festive garments. To accompany these clothes, Bikolanos wore an array of jewellery; earrings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, armbands and belts made from a variety of natural materials. Beads were sourced from common forest plants, gold was mined or traded, ivory was imported from Asian countries to the west and south, seashells were strung and tortoise shell was cut and polished. The degree of workmanship which went into the fabrication of gold jewellery was exemplary and while much of this has been lost, the remaining pieces clearly show the high level of achieved skill. Men and women wore gold earrings that reflected both light and colour, and the chains worn wound around the neck could be of such great length as to still reach the ground. Bracelets were worn, not singly, but in multiples from the wrist to the elbow, and included those made from pure beaten gold in a series of forearm wraps, or bands of gold or ivory or strings of shells. Anklets were often brass rings, or black bands made from forest ferns signalling some act of valour or bravery. Hair was worn long, particularly by women, and its appearance was highly prized. It was combed and cleaned with great care, and cut only in the direst of circumstances. Washing was done with a variety natural substances, generally sourced from the coconut, and then oiled, usually with sesame and scented with civet. Women could decorate their hair with clusters of flowers, and men would frequently wrap it with a long, flowing cloth of varying colours. Tattoos covered the bodies of men from the ankle, up the rear of the legs to the back. These were the general tattoos that all men were expected to have. There were, however, others inked to commemorate some act of valour, with only those who showed particular skill in warfare bearing tattoos across the neck, cheek, eyes and forehead. Women wore more delicate tattoos, restricted for the most part to the fingers and the hand and these carried smaller and more intricate designs. White, natural-looking teeth were clearly not prized among the early Bikolanos, nor among most of the ethnic groups of the central and northern Philippines. Teeth were dyed either black or red, and inlayed or pegged with gold. They were also filed to points, or to level the upper and lower incisors. The process generally began in childhood and continued into adulthood. While groups of the central and southern Philippines gradually abandoned this practice under the spreading influence of the Spanish, it is something still seen in the mountainous, northern areas of the county. While specific customs have changed over the centuries, and materials such as gold and ivory have become less common and more expensive, the tradition of dressing up and looking good still remains strong in Philippine society. Notes
[1] Malcolm W. Mintz, 'Anger and verse: two vocabulary subsets in Bikol,' Vical 2: Western Austronesian and Contact Languages, Papers from the 5th International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Auckland: Linguistics Society of New Zealand, 1991, pp. 231–44.
[2] Ignacio Francisco Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, 1668, Volumes 1 and 2, translated, edited and annotated by Cantius J Kobak and Lucio Gutiérrez, Manila: UST Publishing House, 2002. [3] Francisco Colin, 'Native races and their customs,' from Labor Evangélica, 1663, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, pp. 37–98, pp. 63–64. [4] Antonio Pigafetta, Primo Viaggio Intorno al Mondo, 1525, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 33, pp. 26–267, p. 109. [5] Diego de Artieda, 'Relation of the Western Islands called Filipinas,' ca. 1572, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 3, pp. 190–208, p. 200. [6] Pedro Chirino, S.J., Relación de las Islas Filipinas, 1604, Manila: Historical Conservation Society, 1969, p. 252. [7] Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, 1609, Cambridge: The Hakluyt Society - Cambridge University Press, 1971, pp. 245–46. [8] Miguel de Loarca, 'Relación de las Islas Filipinas,' 1582, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 5, pp. 34–187, pp. 115–17. [9] Diego de Bobadilla, 'Relation of the Filipinas Islands,' 1640, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 29, pp. 277–311, p. 287. [10] Boxer Codex manuscript, ca 1590, Indiana University Digital Library, pp. 47–48, online: http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/digital/collections/items/show/93, accessed 7 March 2014. [11] William Henry Scott, Barangay; Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, pp. 20–21. [12] Chirino, Relación de las Islas Filipinas, p. 252. [13] Colin, 'Native races and their customs,' from Labor Evangélica, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, p. 64. [14] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 145. [15] Boxer Codex manuscript, Indiana University Digital Library, p. 48. [16] Colin, 'Native races and their customs,' p. 63; Chirino, Relación de las Islas Filipinas, p. 252. [17] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 141. [18] Colin, 'Native races and their customs' from Labor Evangélica, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, p. 64; Chirino, Relación de las Islas Filipinas, p. 252; de Bobadilla, Relation of the Filipinas Islands, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 29, p. 287. [19] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, pp. 141, 143. [20] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 143. [21] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 143. [22] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 143. [23] Colin, 'Native races and their customs,' from Labor Evangélica, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, p. 64; Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 143. [24] Colin, 'Native races and their customs,' from Labor Evangélica, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, p. 63; Chirino, Relación de las Islas Filipinas, p. 252. 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[96] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, pp. 105–07. [97] Rosanne Rutten, Artisans and entrepreneurs in the rural Philippines: making a living and gaining wealth in two commercialized crafts, CASA Monographs 2, Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1990. p. 67. [98] Pigafetta, Primo Viaggio Intorno al Mondo, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 33, p. 151. [99] Ramon N. Villegas, Kayamanan: The Philippine Jewelry Tradition, Manila: The Central Bank of the Philippines, 1983, pp. 76, 84. [100] Ramon N. Villegas, Ginto: History Wrought in Gold, Manila: Banko Sentral ng Pilipinas, 2004, p. 92. [101] Colin, 'Native races and their customs,' from Labor Evangélica, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, p. 61. [102] de Bobadilla, 'Relation of the Filipinas Islands,' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 29, p. 287; Boxer Codex Image, http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?pn=51&size=screen&oid=VAB8326. [103] Sanchez de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, see panica. [104] Villegas, Kayamanan: The Philippine Jewelry Tradition, p. 84. [105] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 103. [106] Villegas, Ginto: History Wrought in Gold, p. 103. [107] 'Relation and treatise of Captain Torbio de Miranda's Deeds in the exploration and pacification of the said Province of Tuy,' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 14, p. 295; de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, pp. 249, 267; Guido de Lavezaris, and others 'Reply to Rada's Opinion [on Trubute],' 1574, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 3, pp. 260–71, p. 267. [108] Colin, 'Native races and their customs,' from Labor Evangélica, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, p. 61; de Loarca, Relación de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 5, p. 117. [109] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 105. [110] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 115. [111] Colin, 'Native races and their customs,' from Labor Evangélica, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, p. 62. [112] 'Relation and treatise of Captain Torbio de Miranda's deeds in the exploration and pacification of the said Province of Tuy,' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 14, p. 295. [113] Francisco Combés, 'History of the Southern Islands,' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, p. 144. [114] de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, see dalac. [115] Noceda and Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, see dalac. [116] Noceda and Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, see sigay. [117] de Loarca, 'Relación de las Islas Filipinas,' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 5, p. 73; cowry is referred to as bruscay. [118] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, pp. 103–04. [119] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, pp. 184–85. [120] Gabriel de Ribera, 'Account of expeditions,' in Blair and Robertson, vol. 4, pp. 299–300. [121] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, p. 103. [122] Villegas, Ginto: History Wrought in Gold. pp. 156, 158–59. [123] Villegas, Kayamanan: The Philippine Jewelry Tradition, pp. 90, 94. [124] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, p. 76. [125] Noceda and Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, see calombigas, calambigas. [126] de Mentrida, Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya de la Isla de Panay, see calambugas. [127] Encarnacion, Diccionario español - bisaya, see calambogas. [128] de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, see calongaqui; Encarnacion, Diccionario español- bisaya, see calonggaqui. [129] Bruce W. Carpenter, Ethnic jewelry from Indonesia: continuity and evolution, Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2012, pp. 165–77. [130] de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, see bitic. [131] Noceda and Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, see bitic. [132] Fr. Diego Bergaño, Vocabulario de la lengua Pampanga, en romance, 1732, Manila: Imprenta de Ramirez y Giraudier, Reimpreso 1860, see bitic. [133] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, p. 77. [134] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 115. [135] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 131. [136] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, pp. 177–78, 179. [137] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, p. 184. [138] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, pp. 185–86. [139] Encarnacion, Diccionario español - bisaya, see gala gala; de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, see gala gala; Noceda and Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, see galagala; Bergaño, Vocabulario de la lengua Pampanga, see galagala; de Mentrida, Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya de la Isla de Panay, see gala gala. [140] de Mentrida, Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya de la Isla de Panay, see handalamay. [141] Chirino, Relación de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 12, p. 186. [142] Colin, 'Native races and their customs,' from Labor Evangélica, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 40, p. 62. [143] de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, see sing sing. [144] Bergaño, Vocabulario de la lengua Pampanga, see capuput. [145] Noceda and Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, see pamopot. [146] Noceda and Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, see simpac. [147] 'Vaidurya,' Vedabase, n.d., online: http://vedabase.net/v/vaidurya, accessed 12 April 2013. [148] 'Malay words of Sanskrit origin,' Veda, n.d., online: http://veda.wikidot.com/malay-words-sanskrit-origin, accessed 7 March 2014; R.O. Winstedt, Unabridged Malay-English Dictionary, Singapore: Kelly & Walsh Ltd, n.d., see baiduri. [149] Encarnacion, Diccionario español - bisaya, see caoat; Noceda and Sanlucar, Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala, see cauar; de Mentrida, Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya de la Isla de Panay, see cauat. [150] de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, see cauad. [151] Villegas, Ginto: History Wrought in Gold, pp. 61–62. [152] de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, in Blair and Robertson, vol. 16, p. 76, note 49. Morga's original Spanish text has the words cera hilada which translates as 'spun wax' (de Morga, Sucessos de las Islas Filipinas, Edición crítica y comentada y estudio preliminar de Francisca Perujo, Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2007, p. 221). As the note in the English translation included in Blair and Robertson indicates, this is assumed to be an error, either by the copier or the printer, and the intended text should have been seda hilada 'spun silk'. [153] de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, see camagui; de Mentrida, Diccionario de la lengua Bisaya, Hiliguena, y Haraya de la Isla de Panay, see barbar, camagui; Encarnacion, Diccionario español - bisaya, see camagi. [154] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, p. 113. [155] Ramon N. Villegas, Ginto: History Wrought in Gold, pp. 63–64; photos, pp, 142–43. [156] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, pp. 126–27. [157] It is possible to interpret the Lisboa entry as describing the pinarugmók as possessing threads of gold which were 'finer' than hinúyot and not necessarily 'smaller' in overall length. [158] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 1, pp. 113, 127–28, note 4. [159] de la Rosa, Diccionario español - bisaya para las provincias de Sámar y Leyte, see laniban. [160] Alcina, History of the Bisayan People in the Philippine Islands, vol. 2, pp. 215–16. [161] E. Arsenio Manual, 'A lexicographic study of Tayabas Tagalog,' The Diliman Review, Quezon City, vol. 19 (1971): 219. [162] 'Salaginto', Wikipedia, Malay, n.d., online: http://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaginto, accessed 12 April 2013. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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